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^ )1 

THE TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOL TEACHERS IN 

GERMANY 



BY 



I. L. KANDEL 

M.A. (university OF MANCHESTER) ; PH.D. (COLUMBIA) 



TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 31 



PUBLISHED BY 

HittLtiitta (Haiit^t, CO^olumbia T&uirttrBit^ 

NEW YORK CITY 

1910 



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Copyright, 1910, by I. L. Kandel 



(OGI.A265-9.3 



PREFACE 

The accompanying study is an expansion of two papers pre- 
sented at Teachers College, Columbia University, in the Depart- 
ments of Educational Administration and Elementary Education 
in 1908-9. The investigations then made were supplemented in 
the summer of 1909 by a visit to the German Normal Schools. 
It was considered advisable to limit the scope of this work to the 
training of teachers for elementary schools, since the training of 
secondary school teachers presents an entirely different problem. 
It has so long been the practice in this country to look abroad, 
and particularly to Germany, for guidance in educational mat- 
ters, that it is hoped that the present contribution may offer some 
suggestions on a question that is of vital importance for the pro- 
gress of elementary education. Reference may here be made to 
works in this series on similar topics in France and England 
(Farrington, "The Public Primary School System of France, 
with special reference to the Training of Teachers"; and San- 
diford, "The Training of Teachers in England and Wales"). 

Acknowledgments are due to the Commissioner of Education 
and The English Board of Education for securing permits which 
enabled me to pursue my investigations in Germany; to the 
directors and instructors in the normal schools which I visited, 
for the ready and friendly spirit in which they gave me informa- 
tion; to Professors Sachs, Monroe, Snedden and Strayer, of 
Teachers College, Columbia University, for reading the work 
and offering some valuable and helpful suggestions. 

I. L. K. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

Historical Development page 

German leadership in education. — ^Training of teachers a late 
development. — Writing and vernacular schools. — Teachers' guilds. — 
The Reformation and teachers. — Ratke and Comenius. — Gotha. — 
The Pietistic movement. — Francke. — Hecker and Frederick the 
Great. — Basedow. — Dinter. — The end of the eighteenth century. — 
Pestalozzi's influence. — Plamann. — Zeller. — Prussian ministry of 
education, 1819. — Harnisch. — Diesterweg. — 1848. — Reaction and the 
Regulations of 1854. — Saxon Regulations, 1859. — Normal schools 
for women. — Progress. — Regulations of 1872. — Of 1901. — Clerical 
influence. — Saxon Ordinance of 1873. — Bavarian Regulations. — 
Training of women. — Conclusion i 

CHAPTER II 

Administrative Authorities 

The Imperial Government. — Prussia, Ministry for Public Worship, 
etc. — The Minister. — Provincial School Boards. — Royal Counties. — 
Local Authorities. — School inspectors. — Educational training of 
pastors. — Duties of inspectors. — Saxony, differences from Prussia. — 
Bavaria. — The administrative principle 19 

CHAPTER III 

Preparatory Training of Teachers 

Preparatory institutions. — The systems of Prussia, Saxony, 
Bavaria. — Advantages of dual training institutions. — Preparatory 
institutions in Prussia. — Entrance requirements. — Curriculum. — 
Regulations. — Saxony, first three years of normal school. — Bavaria, 
preparatory institutions. — The problem of preparatory training. — 
Proposed reform 29 

CHAPTER IV 

The Normal Schools (Volksschullehrerseminarien) 

The state and training of teachers in Germany. — Prussia, normal 
schools. — Intern v, extern institutions. — Location of normal schools. 
— Buildings and equipment. — Faculty. — Special courses for normal 
school instructors. — School visits. — Salaries. — The pupils. — Recrea- 



vi Contents 

PAGB 

tions. — Saxony. — Faculty of normal schools. — Their training. — 
Salaries. — Bavaria, faculty, salaries 

CHAPTER V 42 

The Normal School Curriculum. Academic Subjects 

Entrance requirements. — Suggestions for reform. — ^Academic and 
professional studies. — Prussian Course of Study, etc., 1901. — Class- 
room methods. — Aim of the normal school curriculum. — Religion. — 
German. — Modem languages. — History. — Geography. — Science. — 
Music. — Drawing. — Gymnastics. — Saxony. — Bavaria 58 

CHAPTER VI 

Professional Subjects and Practice Teaching 

Division of the programme into three years. — Psychology. — Theory 
and principles of education. — History of education. — Administration 
and hygiene. — Method. — Practice schools and practice teaching. — 
Different aims of practice teaching, Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria. — 
Supervision of practice teaching. — Points of contrast between the 
three states. — Leaving examinations and First Teachers' Examina- 
tion... 71 

CHAPTER VII 

The Teacher at Work 

First appointment. — Appointing authorities. — Rural schools in 
Prussia. — First appointment in Saxony and Bavaria. — Second 
Teachers' Examination. — Military service. — Methods of appoint- 
ment in the three states. — Status of teachers. — Salaries. — Pensions. 
— Provisions for widows and orphans. — Table of teachers' expendi- 
tures 80 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Training of Teachers in Service 

Need for further training. — Promotional examinations. — Middle 
school teachers' examination. — Principals' examination. — -Inspec- 
tion. — Conferences. — Further training in Bavaria. — Associations. — 
Deutsche Lehrerverein. — Local associations and their work. — ^The 
Leipzig Association. — School museums. — Demands for university 
privileges. — Saxony and university training of teachers 97 

CHAPTER IX 

The Training of Women Teachers 

Increase of women teachers. — Opposition to their employment. — 
Conditions favoring their increase. — Figures for 1901-1906. — Prus- 



Contents vii 

PAGE 

sian Regulations for the training of women. — Entrance requirements 
for normal schools. — Previous preparation. — Normal school curricu- 
lum. — Proposed reform. — Teachers' examination. — Further promo- 
tional examinations. — Training of women in Saxony and Bavaria. — 
Salaries of women teachers. — Length of service of women teachers. — 
Associations. — The future of women teachers in Germany in 

CHAPTER X 
Summary and Conclusions 120 

APPENDIX 

I. Time-Table for Preparatory Courses 127 

II. Daily Routine in a Prussian Normal School 127 

III. Official Time-Tables in Normal Schools 128 

IV. Comparison of Some Smaller German States with Prussia 129 

V. Typical Time-Table of a complete Training-School in Prussia 130 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 132 

INDEX 135 



THE TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
TEACHERS IN GERMANY 

CHAPTER I 
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

It is a commonplace of the history of education that the edu- 
cational system of a nation is the outward expression of its aims 
and aspirations, its traditions and its hopes. Nowhere is this 
more clearly exemplified than in the history of the training of 
teachers for the elementary schools of Germany. With a na- 
tional ideal that is explicitly defined the Germans have evolved a 
clearly formulated system of training teachers to achieve that 
ideal. A system such as this, it might be felt, evolved by a nation 
that has long been regarded as the educational leader of the 
world should afford lessons of value to other countries where the 
importance of well-trained teachers has been a matter but slowly 
realized. 

When education meant nothing more than imparting a certain 
amount of knowledge to the pupil, the necessity of training 
teachers could hardly have arisen, for it sufficed if the teacher 
was but a lesson ahead of his pupil. Nor could it have been 
thought of so long as teaching was considered part of the duties 
of the clergy. A conscious recognition of the importance of the 
problem did not arise until the era of the great pedagogic writers 
of the eighteenth century. But attempts were made as early as 
the thirteenth century to exercise some form of control over the 
teachers in the writing of the vernacular schools. These schools, 
out of which the elementary schools were to develop, arose about 
the end of the twelfth century to supply the new needs which 
the rapidly increasing progress of the commercial towns was 
creating. The Latin schools could no longer serve as a prepara- 
tion for the life of the business man. Hence arose the new type 
of schools and with them a struggle between the municipal au- 
thorities and the local Scholasticus or chancellor. The church 



2 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

not only felt that her power was being disputed, but feared that 
the number of pupils in the Latin schools would be diminished. 
The struggle often resulted in a compromise, by which the town 
council was permitted to make the appointment of a teacher to 
keep a writing-school subject, however, to the approval of the 
Scholasticus, and the teacher had to agree to surrender part of 
his school-fees to this authority.^ Very frequently this surrender 
had to be made to the Rector of the local Latin school. Wher- 
ever there was a vacancy in a writing-school, there was no 
dearth of candidates. These were often students who had failed 
to do any good at the universities, sometimes they were artisans 
who were able to read and write; not infrequently they were 
men who had already had some experience in the work. The 
teachers, however, were constantly moving about, for the license 
to teach was only given from year to year and was subject to 
three months' notice — conditions which were satisfactory to both 
sides and particularly to the teacher who found that the fees did 
not come up to his expectations. Nor was great circumspection 
exercised in the appointment of a teacher, since he could easily 
be got rid of if he proved incapable. But the town councils had 
to observe one condition, namely, to protect their appointee 
against any competition from an unlicensed teacher. 

The Winkelschulen (hedge or " dame " schools) were private 
adventure schools opened by persons without the permission of 
the local licensing body. Here the merest elements of reading 
and writing were taught. These schools enjoyed a great popu- 
larity, probably because the fees were lower than in the recog- 
nized writing-school and because (owing to the necessities of 
competition) the discipline was less severe. As the towns grew 
and the number of recognized schools increased, some organiza- 
tion against the unlicensed teachers was necessary and was early 
put into operation. This organization took the form of a guild. 
The earliest teachers' guild in Germany is found in Munich as 
late as 1595. That this guild was a protective organization is 
certain, but it is not quite clear why it appears at a time when 
the guild system generally was nearing the end of its develop- 
ment. Teachers' guilds are found at about the same time at 

'See Fischer, Geschichte des Deutschen VolksschuUehrerstandes, I, 9. 



Historical Development 3, 

Frankfort, Nurenberg, Augsburg, Liibeck. They have all the 
features of a trades' guild. In connection with the training of 
teachers these organizations are of some interest but of little im- 
portance. No person who was not a "master" could keep a 
school for the teaching of elementary subjects. To become a 
"master" it was necessary to go through a period of apprentice- 
ship, to pass an examination, to teach for several years as an as- 
sistant until a vacancy (for a master) should arise in the guild. 
The period of apprenticeship usually lasted six years, beginning 
at eighteen years of age. At the end of the period of apprentice- 
ship the apprentice announced his intention to offer himself for 
examination. This took place before the representatives of the 
town council and the elders of the guild. The subjects of exam- 
ination were arithmetic, writing, geometry, and in some cases, 
book-keeping. After a successful examination the apprentice be- 
came an assistant teacher. As soon as a vacancy occurred in 
the guild, the oldest assistant teacher became a "master" on com- 
plying with the necessary ceremonials, which included the 
wiriting of the signboard to be hung before his school. The 
practice here described was that which prevailed in Nurenberg 
and varied in other places only in some minor details. The 
teachers' guilds continued until the end of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. In Liibeck, where there were two guilds, the last did not 
disappear until 1818. Towards the solution of the question of 
the training of teachers the guilds contributed nothing. For the 
time they were of service in insisting on some kind of prepara- 
tion, however inadequate it may have been. But in adopting the 
methods of a trades' guild they not only protected themselves 
against competitors but served to perpetuate narrowing tradi- 
tions and to exclude new ideas. It is rather significant that more 
pride was taken in being a member of a guild than in being a 
schoolmaster. On the occasion of a procession at Munich the 
teachers' guild was offered the privilege of walking without its 
banners among the representatives of the professions and trades 
instead of taking their places with their standards among the 
artisans. The Munich teachers preferred the show and glitter 
and remained by their banners. As protective organizations the 
teachers' guilds can hardly have met with the success which they 



4 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

expected, for at Liibeck a second guild arose to represent the in- 
terests of the teachers of reading and prayers.^ 

Outside of the towns there was hardly any attempt to give more 
than the necessary religious instruction. Nor did the Reforma- 
tion contribute to the progress of elementary education in Ger- 
many. In spite of the great tribute which Luther^ pays to the 
"industrious, pious schoolmaster" and in spite of his exhortations 
to the clergy on the importance of the schools, the only result of 
the Reformation was to fix the school as the handmaiden of the 
church and the teacher as the servant of the parish pastor. The 
duty of teaching the Catechism and of giving religious instruc- 
tion, which Luther and most of the Church Ordinances of the 
early sixteenth century entrusted to the clergy, came to be dele- 
gated to the sexton of the church. Gradually the duties of this 
official were enlarged so that in the Church Ordinance of Saxony 
in 1580 the village schools are assigned to the sexton, who is to 
teach reading, writing, and church-singing,* The sexton came 
to be identified throughout Germany with the schoolmaster with- 
out contributing anything to the dignity of the latter, particu- 
larly where the pastor did not hesitate to assert his superiority. 
The qualifications demanded from the sexton were hardly higher 
than those of the teacher of the writing-schools. Reading, 
writing, a strong voice to lead the church singing, ability to play 
the organ, and later a knowledge of the rudiments of arithmetic, 
were generally expected from the candidates. Since the right of 
appointment was vested in the community, subject to the approval 
of the local patron or the pastor, great discrimination could not 
be expected. The candidates came from the same class as the 
writing-school teacher, and when after the Thirty Years' War 
crippled soldiers and veterans presented themselves as candidates 
for the twofold position, there was no reason to object to their 
appointment. To the Reformation is due the association of 
school-keeping with the subordinate duties of the church as well 
as the subjection of the teacher to the pastor, a condition of 
things from which the teacher is still struggling to free himself. 



^On teachers' guilds see Fischer, I, ch. 8. 
'Painter, Luther on Education, pp. 142, 143. 

*Mertz, Das Schulwesen der deutschen Reformation, ch. 8; Fischer, 
I. pp. 86-101. 



Historical Development S 

It is usual in Germany to trace the impulse to establish a sys- 
tem of training teachers to Ratke and Comenius. To do this is 
to miss the point emphasized by both these writers, namely, the 
universality of the methods, which they suggest. With them 
skill in teaching depends on a knowledge of their methods, which 
could be obtained by private study. "As soon as we have dis- 
covered the proper method," says Comenius, "it will be no harder 
to teach schoolboys in any number, than with the help of the 
printing-press to cover a thousand sheets daily with the neatest 
writing."^ And elsewhere he says, "There is one factor which 
by its absence or its presence can render the whole organization 
of a school of no avail or can aid it in the highest degree, and that 
is a proper supply of comprehensive and methodical class-books. 
It is evident that the success of my scheme depends entirely on a 
supply of encyclopaedic class-books."^ Nor can the system 
which Comenius suggests of dividing a class into decuries under 
the charge of a decurion be regarded as a method of training 
teachers so much as a class-room device. Trbtzendorf (1523) 
had already employed this system in a form which more nearly 
resembled the monitorial system later introduced by Lancaster, 
but which was not intended to train teachers so much as to carry 
out completely the Roman organization on which the school at 
Goldberg was based.'^ Indirectly both Ratke and Comenius, in 
so far as they awakened an interest in educational questions, con- 
tributed to general progress and only in this sense may they be 
said to have shown the need of teachers with a good preparation. 

To Duke Ernest the Pious^ belongs the honor of having been 
the first to recognize explicitly the necessity of training teachers. 
Enthusiastic as he was for the educational welfare of his state, 
he saw clearly that it would be impossible to establish a sound 
educational system until properly qualified teachers could be 
obtained. Unfortunately for the plan the Thirty Years' War 
had depleted the treasury of the Duke. He accordingly embodied 
his proposals in his will, which he drew up in 1654. "It is very 
desirable," he writes, " that the teachers at their expense or with 

"Comenius, Magna Didactica (Keatinge's transl., p. 248). 
•Ibid., p. 449. 

'Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 185-192. 
'Schmid, Encyklopadie des gesamten Erziehungs und Unterrichts- 
wesen, vol. 10, p. 50. 



6 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

assistance remain in one central place and .... through' pfa'Ctite 
learn that .... for which they will in the future be employed. 
Since we in our lifetime could not establish such an institution nor 
assign a place and means for this purpose, our heirs and succes- 
sors in the future will, if with the blessing of God they obtain 
more means, carry out the work with the help of the state in ac- 
cordance with this intent." It was not until 1698 that the means 
were found by his grandson, Frederick II, of Gotha. Ten 
"Seminaria scholastica" were established. Ten of the most 
skilled schoolmasters were summoned before the supreme con- 
sistory and ordered "that they should as Moderatores assist with 
the necessary guidance those who wished to apply themselves to 
schoolkeeping." The Moderatores circulorum seminarii scholas- 
tici, as the directors of the ten training centres were called, soon 
received their instructions. In addition to religious and secular 
subjects the candidates were to listen to the lessons given by the 
directors and themselves to give lessons in their presence. "After 
that he (the director), should discuss the School-method with 
them at certain hours and not only point out how to act in ac- 
cordance with that, but honestly tell them this or that advantage 
which he, the preceptor, has found practicable and also to give 
them a model lesson in the school so that they may learn well 
how to apply it hereafter."® But this experiment was shortlived, 
for it was found difficult to make even the first payments to the 
directors which had been promised. The experiment was drop- 
ped and bore little fruit, since it was soon overshadowed by an- 
other movement out of which the whole system of training 
teachers in Germany was to develop. 

Under the influence of the pietistic movement greater interest 
began to be shown in the education of the people. The difficulty 
of obtaining suitable teachers soon manifested itself. Accord- 
ing to the author of "Sieben Bose Geister,"^^ a satire descrip- 
tive of conditions at the end of the seventeenth century, the 
teachers in the elementary schools were utterly incompetent and 
to this was added the fact that many continued to practice some 
handicraft even in school hours. The pietists soon began to pay 

"Ibid. 

"Quoted in Klreitz, Diesterweg und die Lehrerbildung, p. 9. See 
also Sammlung Selten Gewordenen pSdagogischen Schriften des i6ten 
und ijten Jahrhunderts, vol. 7. 



Historical Development 7 

some attention to this state of affairs and under the impulse of 
Francke the foundations for the normal schools of Germany 
were laid. In 1696 Francke established the Seminarium prae- 
ceptorum in connection with his institutions at Halle. In order 
to have candidates at hand to fill vacancies in his schools, he in- 
troduced the practice of giving free board to some 120 students 
on condition that they taught for two hours daily or copied out 
sermons for Francke and his friends. For the guidance of these 
students Francke drew up the Instructions or School Ordinance 
in full detail.^^ Points of difficulty had to be reported to the in- 
spectors. Conferences were held, at which the work of the 
school was discussed. The practice of listening to the lessons of 
other teachers was also introduced. It was the duty of the in- 
spector to visit the classrooms to see whether the preceptors car- 
ried out the ordinances. In addition to the Seminarium praecep- 
torum Francke also instituted a Seminarium selectum praecep- 
torum consisting of students, not more than twelve in number, 
who were selected from the ordinary boarders. These had a 
good foundation in theology and showed skill in teaching. In a 
course lasting two years they were prepared to teach in Latin 
schools on condition that they would accept an appointment in 
the Orphanage or the Royal Paidagogium for three years after 
their training. The advantages accruing to Germany generally 
from Francke's work were incalculable. Not only was there a 
supply of good teachers for the schools, but many of the theolo- 
gians who later obtained preferments were in a better position 
to take an intelligent interest and to exercise a salutary influence 
on education in their parishes. 

The work of Francke was taken up and carried on in other 
parts of Prussia by two of his pupils — J. C. Schienmeyer and 
J. J. Hecker.^2 The former established an orphanage in Stettin 
to which at the order of the king, Frederick William I, he added 
a department for the training of teachers in 1732. Under the 
same royal influence Abbot Steinmetz established a normal school 
at Kloster Bergen near Magdeburg, where the lackeys and ser- 
vants of the young noblemen, who attended the Paidagogium, 
received some training. It is to be noticed that both Frederick 



"Francke, Erinnerung an Studierende der Theologie. 
"Schmid, Encykl., 10, 51-55. 



8 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

William and Frederick the Great took a very keen interest in the 
education of the people.^^ So far as the schools under their own 
patronage went they honestly endeavored to introduce a better 
class of teacher. That they failed was not due to absence of regu- 
lations, but to the evil traditions which had been established and 
the inability to exercise any coercion over the noble patrons of 
the schools. 

Of more enduring influence, however, was the normal school 
established by Hecker in connection with his Real school in Ber- 
lin. His attention was directed to the question by the difficulty 
which he experienced in obtaining suitable teachers for the 
lower classes of his school. He represented in an address to the 
king, Frederick the Great, the necessity of establishing normal 
schools not only in Berlin but also in other parts of the state. 
The normal school in Berlin was opened as a private institution 
in 1748. The pupils were divided into two classes, those who 
only came for a short course and left as soon as their means came 
to an end, and a selected few who received support and took a 
fuller and longer course. The former, who very often were ar- 
tisans desiring to eke out their income by keeping school, did not 
have any teaching practice. The course which was offered was 
somewhat varied and extensive and, as it is representative of the 
work done in the normal schools for the next century, may here 
be mentioned. The greatest importance was attached to instruc- 
tion in religion and singing. The secular subjects included read- 
ing, caligraphy, ciphering, German, geography, history, natural 
history and meteorology, a short course in pedagogy and method, 
and gardening, tree-culture and the breeding of the silkworm. 
The inclusion of the practical subjects was due to the influence 
of the King, who desired in this way to foster the industry of the 
state and indirectly to offer an additional means of support to 
the teachers. In 1753 the King gave the institution an annual 
grant and extended for the whole state the order, which he had 
issued in 1752 for the schools on the royal estates, to the effect 
that all vacancies should be filled with teachers from the Berlin 
normal school. But the King himself frustrated the good inten- 
tions of this decree and of the General-Lands chul-Reglement, 
when in 1779 he countenanced an order which encouraged the 

"Cf. the Principia Regulativa, 1736, and the General-Landschul- 
reglement, 1763. 



Historical Development 9 

employment of disabled and veteran soldiers. But general inter- 
est and enthusiasm were now aroused and from the founding of 
the normal school in Berlin to the end of the century scarcely a 
year passed without a record of the foundation of a normal 
school in some part of Germany. Some were founded by means 
of private endowment, as the normal school in Hannover (1751). 
Others owed their foundation to the efforts of educationalists; 
Halberstadt, for instance, was established on the suggestion and 
through the interest of Von Rochow (1778).^* 

Basedow's contribution to the question of the training of 
teachers scarcely deserves consideration, were it not for the fact 
that he is given more credit than he deserves. In the Agatha- 
erator in which he drew up a plan for a Seminar he proposes an 
institution where young people under an inspector might practice 
better methods and spread them to other normal schools. In 
soliciting funds for the Philanthropinum he says that the system 
of education must be changed and first through normal schools. 
The institution was opened in 1775 with a great flourish for 
"gentlemen commoners" (Pensionisten) and servitors (Famu- 
lanten). From among the latter, who were to be boys between 
the ages of eleven and fifteen, he proposed to get teachers. The 
best of them were to go through the same course as the com- 
moners, and were to become tutors in good schools and houses. 
For those of mediocre ability part of the course was to be cur- 
tailed, and positions were to be found for them in lower schools. 
The poorest pupils were to be taught reading, writing, arithmetic 
and a little language and were to be prepared for positions of 
personal service. At the end of the four years this system broke 
down and no more "servitors" were received at the institution in 
Dessau. The attempt would only have tended to retain the poor 
type of valet as teachers in the elementary schools.^** 

Another form of training was that given to a few pupils by 
those of the clergy who had the ability and interest in education. 
This system received recognition and was recommended in the 
Renewed School-ordinance for the German town^^tbnd — ruj^ 
schools of the Electorate of Saxony (section 13).^" Dinter, who 

'*Kehr, Padagogische Blatter, 1878, p. 331, fif. 
"Schmid, Geschichte der Padagogik, IV, 2, pp. 190, ff. 
^'Leuschke, Zur Geschichte der Lehrerbildungsfrage itn K5nigreich 
Sachsen, p. 23. 



ao Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

later became the director of the normal school in Oresden- 
Friedrichstadt, gives an account in his autobiography of the work 
which he accomplished in the training of five pupils in this way.^' 
IBut however well-meaning these efforts were, progress was 
-checked through lack of means. Although the course of train- 
ing as a general rule lasted two years the accommodation and 
the teaching staff were in most cases so limited that the two or 
three classes had to be taught together. Dinter, for example, 
had a three years' course at school in Dresden-Friedrichstadt, 
but was compelled to repeat his curriculum annually. When 
library facilities were very small, this practice had some advan- 
tages, but on the whole it must be admitted that it was unecono- 
mical. The relations between the teachers and the students were 
very friendly. Dinter's reply to the critics, who found fault with 
his liberal attitude towards his pupils, was " Whoever expects too 
much seriousness from young fellows of seventeen to twenty, has 
at any rate no knowledge of men." 

Although the salaries paid to teachers in those days were small 
and the position of a teacher still commanded very little respect, 
the students and teachers in the normal schools at that time had 
all the enthusiasm of pioneers. It was this spirit of earnestness 
and devotion which slowly and surely won the respect and sup- 
port of the leading men of Germany. In 1794 all schools and 
universities were recognized as state institutions by the General 
Constitution of Prussia {Allgemeine Landrecht). And in the 
same year a Normal School Commission (Seminarkommission) 
was established in Saxony, and three years later an examination 
ordinance was promulgated for those who had completed a three 
years' course in a normal school. The institutions, however, still 
remained in private hands and were maintained mainly out oi 
private funds, although the Prussian Government occasionally 
gave some contributions. 

The first twenty years of the new century saw an increased 
activity in educational affairs in Germany. To the national and 
political causes was added the interest aroused by Pestalozzi's 
work. In 1803 J. E. Plamann^^ visited Burgdorf, where he re- 
mained several months. On his return to Berlin he established a 



"Dinter, Autobiographic, pp. 169-190. 

^'Barnard, Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, p. 217. 



Historical Development ii 

school on the same system, which soon became the centre of Ger- 
man Pestalozzianism, and in 1805 he received royal recognition. 
In 1809 K. A, Zeller, a devoted student and follower of Pesta- 
lozzi, was summoned from .Wiirtemherg to Konigsberg, where he 
conducted courses in pedagogy for clergy and teachers. He was 
instrumental in founding three normal schools in East Prussia. 
At the same time the government adopted the farsighted policy 
of sending young men to study the work of Pestalozzi at 
Yverdun for two or three years at the expense of the state.^® 
Many of these later became directors of normal schools or school 
inspectors. Thus Henning became director at Coslin, Preuss 
director at Karalene, Dreist became school inspector in Stettin 
and Kawerau in Coslin. The Plamann institution in Berlin was 
also used to train teachers in Pestalozzian ideas. Here W. Har- 
nisch spent some years at the expense of the state. He became 
first teacher in the normal school at Breslau, where he found two 
colleagues who had been students at Yverdun, and later he was 
appointed director of the normal school at Weissenfels. In 
Saxony Dinter strove to carry out the Pestalozzian ideals, and in 
Wiirtemberg the new education was introduced by Denzel, who 
was director of the normal school at Esslingen. The twenty 
years after the disaster at Jena (1806) were marked by a rapid 
increase in the number of normal schools throughout Germany. 
In 1817 the Ministry for Public Worship, Education and Medical 
Affairs was separated from the Ministry of the Interior, with 
Von Altenstein at the head. In 1821 Dr. Ludolf Beckedorfif was 
appointed to take charge of the section for normal schools, which 
now numbered twenty-eight. Acting on the principle that "to 
have good schools we must have good teachers," he devoted the 
six years during which he was in office to improving the status 
of teachers and to raising the standard of the candidates for the 
teaching profession. In 1820 the first Regulations for Normal 
Schools were published in Saxony, and recognised Latin and 
Prench as part of the curriculum of these institutions. 

The two men who, more than others at this period, contributed 
to raise the professional status and to place the curriculum of the 
German normal schools on an intellectual basis were Harnisch and 

"Monroe, W. S., The Pestalozzian Movement in the United States, 
ch. I. (Syracuse, 1907); Wilke, Diesterweg und die Lehrerbildung, p. 41; 
Berlin, 1890. 



1 2 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

Diesterweg.^" Different as the attitude of these men was, the one 
being a strong pietist, while the other was just as strongly ration- 
alistic, they joined in the view that the future teachers must have 
an intellectual training not limited by the subjects which were 
taught in the elementary schools. They also saw clearly that the 
length of the normal school course must be extiended to a uniform 
period of three years. The teacher of the future must be taught 
to think and not trained to be a machine. On these grounds they 
both objected to the system of preparation for the normal schools 
which then prevailed. This was obtained by a course at a special 
preparatory school, which prepared candidates for the entrance 
examinations at the normal schools, or by a system of pupil- 
teacherships. The only suitable preparation which would have 
satisfied them would have been a course in a higher elementary 
school. The gymnasium was considered by both as totally un- 
suitable to prepare for the normal schools. In this direction, 
however, neither Harnisch nor Diesterweg was able to bring 
about any reform. But in their main objects they met with the 
greatest success. Apart from the progress which they made in 
their own field, Harnisch at Weissenfels, and Diesterweg at Mors 
and later in Berlin, they contributed in no small measure to 
arouse a strong professional feeling among the teachers through- 
out Germany. Associations began to be formed, demands for 
higher education began to make themselves felt, and the greatest 
interest was shown in further education. During the period 
which preceded the Revolution of 1848 the teachers were agitat- 
ing at meetings of their associations^^ and in the columns of the 
educational magazines, a product of the quickened professional 
feeling, and were definitely formulated at the National Assembly 
held in Frankfort in 1848. Briefly these demands were: (a) 
The abolition of clerical control, (b) The establishment of min- 
isterial departments of education, (c) The abolition of prepara- 
tory institutions and the preparation of candidates for the normal 
schools in higher elementary schools, (d) A higher intellectual 
curriculum in the normal schools, (e) The removal of the 
normal schools to university towns and the erection of the normal 

'"For Diesterweg consult Kreitz, Diesterweg und die Lehrerbildung. 
Wittenberg, 1890; Wilke, Diesterweg tind die Lehrerbildung, Berlin, 1890. 

'^Rissmann, Geschichtc des deutschen Lehrervereins, p. 41- Berlin 
1908. 



Historical Development 13 

schools into professional institutions, (f) The recognition of 
teachers as civil servants and exemption from the lower church 
duties, (g) Inspection of schools by professional men. (h) 
The inclusion of teachers on local school boards. 

The Revolution failed but the teachers of Prussia thought that 
they might hope for reforms when in the following year the Min- 
istry summoned a conference of twelve directors and teachers 
of normal schools to discuss the proposed reforms. But all 
hopes of obtaining their demands were shattered, when it was 
known that the King placed the responsibility of the recent 
disorders at the door of the normal schools and the teachers 
whom they had produced. The power of the reaction was now 
supreme throughout Germany, and it is a significant fact, illustra- 
tive as much of the strength of the reactionaries as of the prema- 
ture character of the demands, that in Prussia only the proposals 
(f) and (h) have been realized up to the present. 

The first consequence of the reaction was the retirement of 
Diesterweg, who had done so much to foster an independent spirit 
among the teachers. The further consequences soon appeared. 
In 1852 an administrative order was issued limiting the period of 
attendance at the normal schools to three years^^ and this was to 
be followed by apprenticeship to a country teacher, who would be 
responsible for the further education and the practical training 
of the candidates. In Prussia the expected Regulations were 
issued in 1854 {Regulativa, i, Okt. 1854).^^ The responsibility 
for these regulations rests on Stiehl who directed the department 
for normal and elementary schools. Candidates for the normal 
schools were to receive their preparation privately from the pas- 
tors or teachers. The curriculum of the normal schools was 
limited to the subjects of the elementary schools. The aim of the 
normal schools was declared to be to give the pupils practical 
and theoretical instruction in religion, reading, the mother tongue, 
writing, arithmetic, singing, history, and nature study, without any 
attempt at scientific treatment. The reading of the German 
classics was forbidden. Training in the professional subjects was 
limited to Schulkunde. In this way political and clerical 
obscurantism and reaction triumphed over the results of enlight- 
ened progress. 

'^The course had been extended to four years in 1835. 
''Schmid, Encykl., 10, 83-99. 



14 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

The same principles of restriction and limitation characterize 
the Regulations for the evangelical normal schools of the King- 
dom of Saxony of 1857.^* In the same year Bavaria had issued 
regulations for normal schools based on those of Prussia. It is 
significant that it was during this period that the advisability of 
employing women teachers was discussed in Saxony^^ and that a 
state normal school for women teachers was established at Droys- 
sig in Prussia in 1853, followed by a school in Saxony, which was 
opened at Callnberg in 1856. 

The reactionaries had, however, made the mistake of going too 
far with their extreme measures. Their bitterest opponents, and 
among them Diesterweg, were ready to recognize such merits as 
could be discovered in the Regulations of 1854. The position of 
the normal schools was at least defined and uniformity was intro- 
duced. Stronger emphasis was laid on the importance of a 
thorough practical training in the practice schools, which were 
attached to the normal schools. Stress was laid on relating 
methods with the subject matter as taught in the class-rooms to 
the students. But nothing could compensate for the restrictions 
placed on the intellectual training. No question received so much 
attention in the professional magazines and at the meetings of the 
teachers' associations as that of the importance of a wider study 
of German literature. In 1859 Von Raumer retired from the 
position of Minister of Education. The immediate effect of this 
was that concessions began to be granted. In the same year 
there was an extension of mathematical curriculum in the normal 
schools. In 1861 permission was given by a ministerial decree to 
read the classical works of the national writers, although this had 
continued to be done privately in spite of the Regulations. About 
the same time the study of chemistry was introduced.^^ In 
Saxony there was also a change in the attitude of the government 
towards the normal schools. The Ordinance for the admission of 
elementary school teachers to the university to obtain a higher 
professional training, which was passed in 1865, was sufficient 
guarantee of a desire to raise the opportunities of the teachers 

"Promulgated on June 15, 1859. This law excluded Latin, logic and 
psychology from the curriculum of the normal schools. 

"Leuschke, Zur Geschichte der Lehrerbildungsfrage im KOnigreich 
Sachsen, p. 90, 

'•Kreitz, p. 119; Leuschke, ch. 9. 



Historical Development i^ 

for further education. The ordinance only provided for the grant 
of, the privilege to those who obtained an "Excellent" or "Good 
with distinction" in the examination for appointment as teacher 
and had already been actively engaged in school work. Admission 
was granted to a course at the University of Leipzig for two years, 
but at the end of the course candidates on passing an examination 
became eligible for appointment in a secondary school. A genuine 
wave of liberalism spread over Saxony. So far as possible at- 
tempts were made to meet the wishes of the teachers. Thus in 
1866 the Minister of Culture summoned the directors of the nor- 
mal schools to a conference on language instruction and through- 
out this period the Ministry of Culture was represented at the con- 
ferences and meetings of the teachers' associations, at which the 
improvement of the normal school course very often formed the 
subject of discussion. 

In Prussia several circumstances combined to bring about, if 
not the revocation of the Regulations of 1854, at least a measure 
of reform. The sixties had seen the growth of commercial and 
industrial prosperity of the state and with it came a popular de- 
mand for better schools. The agitations of the teachers them- 
selves could not be disregarded. Diesterweg had carried the 
campaign into the Lower House and had fought for the rights 
of the teachers almost up to his death in 1866. The war of 1870 
and its successful issue also brought about the need of reorgani- 
zation. In 1872 Falk, a man with a genuine interest in the edu- 
cation of the people and the welfare of the teachers, became 
Minister of Education. Two months after his appointment the 
School Inspection Law was passed, by which the schools were 
declared to be under the direct inspection of the state and the 
pastors could only exercise any control in so far as they re- 
ceived authorization from the government. The general educa- 
tional reform was taken in hand almost immediately. In June a 
conference was held in Berlin to which the Minister had sum- 
moned representatives of political parties and the various types 
of schools. On October 15 the General Regulations were is- 
sued.^^ Here it is only necessary to enter into them so far as 
they concern the normal schools. The changes which directors 
had made on their own initiative since 1854 were recognized. 

"Quoted in extenso in, Schmid, Encykl., 10, 102-110. 



1 6 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

The scope of the curriculum was extended in accordance with 
the demands of the teachers. The importance of the study of 
German literature was recognized and with it the need of good 
school libraries. The scientific studies were extended and now 
included nature study, physics and chemistry. Religious instruc- 
tion was curtailed and, though still forming an important part 
of the curriculum, did not equal the amount prescribed by the 
last Regulations. But the principle was still retained that every 
lesson must be given in such a form that it could be reproduced 
in the elementary school. In other words every lesson must be 
a lesson in method. Nor was any encouragement given to study 
a foreign language, the mark of higher education in those days. 
Latin and foreign languages were made optional, with the reser- 
vation that only the more gifted students should take them up 
and begin with French. To meet the higher requirements and 
standards of the normal schools the state recognized preparatory 
instituions with courses lasting from two to three years, pro- 
vided that they agreed to submit to inspection. 

The Regulations met with the general approval of the teachers, 
and with the institution of promotion examinations the greatest 
enthusiasm and activity in further training manifested them- 
selves. New questions and new demands arose, but all were in 
the direction of an extension of opportunities for advanced study. 
These the Prussian government has not yet granted and in this 
has remained somewhat behind many of the smaller states. The 
Regulations of 1872 remained in force until they were superseded 
by the Regulations and Cotirse of Study of 1901. In spite, how- 
ever, of regulations and prescriptions with liberal tendencies, the 
spirit and the traditions which had been established during the 
century could not be eradicated and the influence of clericalism 
is still to be noticed in the normal schools. The direction of the 
normal schools and the inspection of elementary education are 
still preponderatingly in the hands of theologians. The attitude 
of the educational authorities in Prussia may be understood from 
the persistent refusal to follow the lead established by Saxony 
and to recognize the normal schools as a part of the system of 
higher education. The only concession in this direction has been 
the recognition of the final leaving examination of a normal 
school as a qualification for the one year volunteer military ser- 
vice. In other words the graduates of normal^hools obtain at 



Historical Development . i? 

the age of twenty a privilege which is granted at the end of six 
years' study to those who attend a secondary school. 

In Saxony the new era for normal schools was ushered in by 
the Ordinance for Normal Schools for Elementary School 
Teachers of July 14th, 1873.^^ So far as the curriculum is con- 
cerned this measure fully put into operation the wishes expressed 
by the Pedagogical Society of Chemnitz in 1866.^^ With a few 
minor changes this Ordinance was embodied in the Law on 
Gymnasiums, Real Schools and Normal Schools of August 22nd, 
1876, which with the detailed directions for the operation of the 
law, issued on January 29th, 1877, included the normal schools 
among the institutions for higher education. Since this law is 
still in operation, it will be treated in the following pages in 
some detail. But it is important at this point to emphasize the 
contrast between the manifestation of a liberal attitude in Prus- 
sia and in Saxony. 

The normal school system of Bavaria as at present organized 
is based on the Regulation for the Training of Teachers in the 
Kingdom of Bavaria. This system is representative of a type 
which differs from the systems of Prussia and Saxony and will 
be dealt with in subsequent chapters. 

The history of the training of women teachers is limited to 
the last century.^" Not that women had not previously played 
an important part in the work of the school. Female teaching 
orders had existed in the thirteenth century and these gave in- 
struction to poor and rich. Further, among the Wink els chulen 
there were also dame schools.^^ Nor did the guilds set their 
faces against the keeping of school by the widows of former 
members, though it was usual in such cases to employ an assis- 
tant who had served his apprenticeship. In Lubeck there was a 
guild of women teachers of reading.^^ i^ ^l Regulation issued 
in Prussia in 1738 women were allowed to keep school, provided 
they obtained the necessary license from the town authorities, in 
which they might teach boys up to seven years of age and girls 
as long as their parents were willing to keep them at school. 

^'Kretzschmar, J. F., Hsheres Schulwesen in Sachsen. 
^'Leuschke, pp. 111-115. 

'•Herber, Das Lehrerinnenwesen in Deutschland, pp. 7-12; Lexis, Das 
Unterrichtswesen im deutschen Reich, vol. II, 282-8. 
"Fischer, p. 206. ^^Fischer, p. 252. 



1 8 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

The earliest training course for women teachers was established 
in the diocese of Miinster in 1783 and was under the direction of 
Bemhard Overberg. In 1832 the first normal schools for the 
training of women were established in Miinster and Berlin, and 
both were attached to the girls' high schools. The number in- 
creased rapidly within the next four years.^^ In 1845 the first 
examination ordinance for women teachers was issued in Prus- 
sia.^* In 1852 the first Prussian normal school for women under 
state supervision was opened at Droyssig and in Saxony in 1856 
at Callnberg. In the fifties the number of women teachers rose 
owing to a dearth of male teachers. Institutions which prepared 
for the examination rapidly increased. No regulations were 
passed for the guidance of the Prussian normal schools for 
women with the exception of that at Droyssig. In 1874 new 
regulations for the examination of women were issued and have 
remained in force up to the present with some slight modifica- 
tions. No sharp distinction was drawn between the preparation 
given in the female normal schools for service in elementary or 
high schools for girls. The examinations and the organization of 
the normal schools for women will be dealt with more fully 
later. Here it need only be mentioned that the tendency at 
present is to separate the training of candidates for elementary 
and high schools. In Saxony, however, a distinction is made in 
the examinations for the two positions but the preparation for 
both is given in the same institutions, which were organized in 
1876. In Bavaria no distinction has been made between the 
training of men and women since 1868 with the exception of 
some differences in the details of the curriculum. 

Thus the evolution of the German elementary school teachers 
into a professional class is a phase of the history of the develop- 
ment of the political emancipation of the German people. Both 
movements represent a struggle against obscurantism and cleri- 
cal domination. The teachers are still far from the attainment 
of the position which their predecessors claimed almost a cen- 
tury ago. Any attempt to move forward in the process of 
natural evolution is blocked by reactionary opponents, and this 
accounts for the fact that the normal schools of Germany suffer 
more from the influence of tradition than most German institu- 
tions. 



"Barnard, German Normal Schools, p. 108, ff. 
"Herber, pp. 26-28. 



% 



CHAPTER II 
ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES 

In the following chapter it is proposed to deal only with the 
German administrative authorities in so far as they come into 
relation with the teachers of the elementary schools, with the 
normal schools and the whole question of the training of the 
elementary school teachers and their appointment and conditions 
of service. 

Within the limits mentioned the Imperial government is only 
concerned with the maintenance of the standards of the examina- 
tions on which the privilege of one-year military service as a 
volunteer {Einjdhrig Frekvilliger) is granted. Otherwise the or- 
ganization of education is left to the states individually. 

With the exception of the fact that the King has the power of 
appointing the directors of the normal schools the chief authority 
in educational affairs in Prussia is vested in the Ministry for Pub- 
lic Worship, Education and Medical Affairs. At the head of this 
department stands the Minister who is a member of the cabinet. 
He is appointed by and responsible to the crown. In the Lower 
House he represents his department, which has competence in 
three fields as is denoted in its title. In educational matters the 
Minister is responsible for the drawing up of the budget and 
for the expenditures. In questions of conflicting authority and 
in the decision of all appeals on educational matters he acts as 
the final court of appeal. Since there is no codified legislation on 
education in Prussia his power of issuing administrative orders, 
of drawing up courses of study and of issuing regulations renders 
his position one of considerable importance and responsibility, 
and a reactionary Minister of Education may cause considerable 
trouble and dissatisfaction, as happened in the case of the recent 
Minister Studt, famous for his orders to put on the brake 
(Bremserlass). The orders, regulations, rescripts and de- 
cisions {Erlass, Regulativ, Verfugung, BesHmmung) issued by 

19 



20 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

the Minister have the force of law. These are published in the 
Centralblatt fur die gesamte Unterrichtsverwaltung, which all 
school authorities are obliged to take/ The power of making 
certain appointments and ratifying others as well as of confer- 
ring titles on teachers is vested in the Minister. Immediately 
under the Minister is an Under-secretary of State. 

For purposes of administration the educational section of the 
ministry is divided into two departments, each under a director. 
One department deals with university, higher, technical and art 
education. The other controls elementary and normal schools, 
the education of girls, physical training, and institutions for 
idiots, blind, deaf and dumb. The authority of these depart- 
ments is largely delegated to administrative bodies with power 
over areas of varying extent from the provinces to the local dis- 
tricts.^ 

Prussia is divided into thirteen provinces. For educational 
matters the chief authority in each province is the Chief Presi- 
dent of the province assisted by a board consisting of four or 
five school councillors, inspectors and administrative officials. 
The Chief President is responsible for the smooth working of 
the administrative machinery of his province. With the aid of 
the Provincial School Board (Provinsialschulkollegium) he ap- 
points the commissions to hold examinations for middle-school 
teachers and school principals. Subject to the ratification of the 
Minister he appoints teachers to the normal schools, with the ex- 
ception of the director, and to preparatory institutions main- 
tained by the state. He decides on all financial matters affecting 
teachers; he may compel teachers in elementary and middle 
schools to retire on a pension and he has the authority to grant 
extended leave of absence. Under his direction the board has 
charge of all branches of higher school education. It directs the 
appointment, promotion, discipline, suspension or dismissal of 
teachers in higher schools, including normal schools and prepara- 
tory institutions. It examines text-books and with the consent 
of the Minister may issue new books, when necessary. All sta- 
tutes and regulations for the internal management of schools 



^Central-Blatt fur die gesamte Unterrichtsverwaltung,, 1883, P« 5°3- 
^Kretzschmar, Handbuch des Preussischen Schulrechts, pp. 6, 7 ; 

Bremen, Die Preussische Volksschule, pp. 163-4; Russell, German Higher 

Schools, ch. V. 



Administrative Authorities 21 

must have the approval of the board. Further, the board regu- 
lates and supervises the leaving examinations from high schools 
(Abiturientenexamen) and from normal schools as well as the 
examination for the permanent appointment of elementary 
school teachers. Twice a year reports of the work of the board 
must be sent in to the Minister.^ 

A further subdivision of Prussia is into royal counties 
(Kdnigliche Regierungen)* of which there are thirty-six in 
number. In each county there is a department for churches and 
schools, (Abteilung fiir Kirchen und Schulen). Generally speak- 
ing the control of the county authority is confined to ele- 
mentary, middle and private schools and philanthropic institu- 
tions. The department for churches and schools appoints teach- 
ers to the elementary schools on royal domains and ratifies the 
appointments made by other patrons and school committees. It 
audits church and school accounts and supervises the operation 
of all school laws and ministerial rescripts. At the request of 
local bodies the department may inquire into local conditions and 
establish school districts. Further, it may supervise the conduct, 
public and private, of teachers and grants short terms of leave. 
The county boards are presided over by the County President, 
and include chief county councillors, county councillors and pro- 
fessional members. Every councillor must make an annual tour 
of his county and report his observation, which are included in 
the report of the department. The Chief President of the 
province acts as the intermediary between the provincial and 
county boards by a ministerial decree holds a combined meeting 
of the provincial and county boards once in two years.'' 

The local authorities'® with power over more restricted areas 
and standing in closer relation to those who use the schools are 
in towns the School Deputation (Stadtsschuldeputation) and in 
rural districts the School Committee (Schulvor stand). The 
school deputation is representative of most of the interests of a 
town, the only restriction being that supporters of the social 
democratic party are not eligible. The deputation consists of 



*Kretzschmar, pp. 18, 19; Bremen, pp. 164, 165 and 170-2. 
*Kretzschniar, pp. 12-17; Bremen, p. 165 and pp. 176-185. 
'1888. See Bremen, p. 164. 

'Bremen, pp. 517-528; Plfischke, P., Die stadtischen Schuldeputationen 
und ihr Geschaftskreis, pp. 10-69. 



22 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

from one to three executive officials of tiie town, nominated by the 
mayor ; an equal number of town councillors ; professional mem- 
bers interested in education, selected by the first two classes al- 
ready mentioned; representatives of denominations and royal 
schools, which may be located in the town. By ministerial de- 
crees of 1897 ^^d 1902, which have since received the authority 
of law (1906), among the professional representatives there must 
be included a teacher or principal of a school, and if the number 
of professional members exceeds four there may be two teachers 
on the board, although in such a case one of the teachers may be 
female and from an elementary school under the control of the 
deputation.'^ The members must receive the approval of the 
county authorities and hold office for six years. In addition to 
the above the district school inspector (Kreisschulinspektor) of 
the district and the director of education, who in the larger 
towns often performs the duties of the district inspector, also 
have seats on the deputation as government representatives.^ 

The competence of the school deputation^ extends over the 
internal and external arrangement of the schools, more particu- 
larly elementary and middle schools, their equipment, the com- 
pulsory attendance of children of school age, and the provision 
of sufficient and satisfactory school buildings. With the approval 
of the county authority it appoints teachers and school principals 
and arranges salary scales. It draws up the annual financial 
budget and approves courses of study and text-books. The ap- 
proval of a higher authority is, however, required for the acts of 
the school deputation. In no case has the deputation any disci- 
plinary authority over teachers nor can it interfere in the actual 
conduct of a school. The professional members may visit the 
schools, take note of the progress of the pupils, and make sugges- 
tions to the principal, but nothing more. In visiting girls' high 
schools, which are under the charge of the town they are em- 
powered to coopt women who take an interest in educational 
matters. An annual report of the work of the deputation must 
be sent in to the county department for schools. 

The school deputation may delegate its authority to commis- 
sions. Of these the most important are the School Commissions 

'PMschke, p. 62. ' • 

Ibid., p. 63. 

'Ibid., pp. 107, 108 and 113-116. 



Administrative Authorities 23 

(Schulkommission) which act virtually as managers of single 
schools. They consist of a town official nominated by the mayor 
or another mem'ber as chairman, a local school inspector/" if 
there is one, a pastor of the denomination represented by a ma- 
jority of the pupils in the school, a member of the staff of the 
school selected by the deputation, and representatives of the in- 
habitants of the locality in which the school is situated. The 
commissions look after the interest of the school to which they 
are assigned and see that its equipment is not behind that of 
other schools of the town, and have a voice in the selection of a 
teacher for their school. Among other duties they arrange par- 
ents' evenings and look after the poorer pupils of the school.^^ 

The School Cbmmittee^^ in rural communities consists of the 
mayor, where there is such an official, or a corresponding offi- 
cial, a teacher selected by the supervising authority, the pastor 
of the denomination to which a majority of the pupils belong, 
and from one to six representatives of the local inhabitants. The 
committee serves to keep awake local interest in the school. It 
fixes the budget for the maintenance of the school and provides 
the ways and means for this purpose. It is responsible for the 
satisfactory equipment of the school and the salaries of the 
teachers. The provision of a school-building, its ventilation and 
heating, the regular attendance of the pupils, the promotion of 
parents' evenings, lectures and school festivals are within the 
competence of the committee. Further, the committee serves to 
bring particular local needs to the notice of the district school 
inspector or to the higher authority, the county department for 
education. Such local needs include a rearrangement of the 
time-table or the vacations, or the discharge of pupils from 
school before they have reached the statutory age. 

The inspection of schools is entrusted to district school inspec- 
tors and local school inspectors. The former {Kreisschulinspek- 
toren) are appointed by the minister on the recommendation of 
the county authorities.^^ Nominally they should "be appointed 
from among normal school teachers with academic or normal 
school training, or from among principals of elementary schools. 

'"Ibid., pp, 665, 666 and 707. 
"Ibid., pp. 706, 707. 
"Ibid., pp. 707-710. 
'^Bremen, p. 189. 



24 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

In practice, however, the office is usually given to normal school 
teachers who have had a university training, or to clergymen. 
One of the chief demands of the teachers, reiterated again and 
again since 1848, is for the establishment of a professional inspec- 
torate selected from those who have a knowledge of the actual 
conditions and requirements of elementary education from prac- 
tical experience.^* As at present constituted the inspection of 
schools is largely in the hands of men whose main duties lie in 
other walks of life. The number of inspectors who devote 
themselves entirely to the duties of inspection is gradually in- 
creasing, although as will be seen from the following table^^ the 
increase is very slow: 



Year 


■ Inspectors of 
Schools 
Exclusively 


Inspecting Schools 

AS AN Additional 

Duty 


Total 




Number 


Per cent. 


Number 


Per cent. 




1882 

1897 

1892 

1897 

1902 

1907 


181 
229 
246 
277 
316 
5Z^ 


20. II 
21 .01 
20 . 26 
22 .30 

25-77 
26.00 


719 
861 
968 

965 
914 
941 


79.89 
78.99 
79-74 
77.70 

74-23 
74.00 


900 
1090 
1214 
1242 
1230 
1272 



The local school inspectors (Ortsschulinspektoren) are in 
most cases the local pastors except in large graded schools where 
the function of the local inspector is exercised by the principal 
of the school. The strongest objections are expressed against 
this form of inspection, which is claimed by the church as a tra- 
ditional right. The opposition of the teachers is based on the 
ground that this practice subordinates them to an authority 
which lacks the necessary knowledge and training to enter with 
sympathy into the work of the school. The opposition in no way 
involves any antagonism to religious training in the school, but 
it is felt that the influence of the pastor ought not to extend be- 
yond that. 



"Rissmann, pp. 35, 88, 92, 93, 95, loi, 169, 206, 216, 225, where 
reports of the resolutions passed on the subject of professional inspection 
since 1848 are given. 

^^RepL, U. S. Com. Educ, 1908, p. 188. 



Administrative Authorities 35 

Recognizing that such objections were reasonable the govern- 
ment by a decree issued in 1842 instituted a short training course 
for candidates for the ministry.^® In 1889 an ordinance was 
published by the Minister containing new regulations on this 
course. Every theological candidate between his first and second 
examination must present himself at a normal school for a train- 
ing of six weeks in order to acquaint himself with the nature of 
the instruction given in a Prussian elementary school. Those 
who have already had some experience in teaching in any type 
of school are exempted, as well as those who have had a course 
in educational principles at a theological seminary. Not more 
than twelve candidates may attend the same course. During 
their attendance in the normal school they are under the direc- 
tion of the director of the school. The aim of the course is to 
prepare the future pastor for the duties of school supervision. 
Special attention must be paid to the practice-school, and to the 
work in the normal schools in order to obtain some idea of the 
nature and scope of the training of a teacher and the significance of 
the different branches of the curriculum, as well as some knowl- 
edge of the theory and principles of education. It is expected of 
the candidates that they should make themselves acquainted with 
the regulations dealing with the elementary schools. The director 
of the normal school draws up a program for the course with 
special care that there should be some continuity in the work 
pursued by the candidates. He holds conferences with the can- 
didates and directs them to the best educational writings. At 
least once during the course the candidates must give a lesson in 
the practice-school in the presence of the director and the faculty 
of the normal school. Wherever there is an opportunity the 
candidate must make some study of institutions for the blind, the 
deaf and the dumb. At the end of the course the director re- 
ports to the Provincial School Board, which in turn forwards 
the report to the Provincial Consistory. If a report is unsatis- 
factory, the latter may compel a candidate to repeat a course. 
This practice may be well-meant but it is hardly a satisfactory 
preparation to qualify interference with a teacher who has had a 
similar training for three years and has the professional attitude. 
Moreover the course is not taken seriously. Very little attention 



^'Central-Blatt, 1889, p. 537. 



26 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

is usually paid by the candidates to the work of the class-room 
and the lack of sympathy is often to be noticed in the laughter 
which is indulged in by the academically trained candidates at the 
expense of the normal school pupils. On the whole the demand 
of the Prussian teacher for professional inspection is fully jus- 
tified. 

The duties of the district school inspector are not officially 
prescribed by the central authority but may be gathered from the 
instructions issued by the county department of Coslin.^'^ The 
inspector acts in an advisory capacity to the local school inspector 
and the local authorities but has no power to restrict their influ- 
ence. He exercises disciplinary authority over the teachers, 
whom he may warn, fine or censure, and has power to grant leave 
of absence for a limited period. He must visit the schools at 
least once a year, examine in about three branches of the curricu- 
lum, and inspect the records of the work done by the teacher. 
All matters referring to the school building are within his 
province. He holds conferences of the teachers of the district 
and superintends the preparatory training of teachers. Reports 
must be made to the county authority. The duties of the local 
school inspectors are much the same as those of the district in- 
spectors, with this difference that the local inspectors are in 
more intimate touch with the schools. In addition to superin- 
tending the general conduct of the teachers in and out of the 
school and reporting any dereliction of duty, the local inspectors 
also hold the examinations of the pupils of the schools under 
their charge. All reports of the local inspectors go to the district 
inspectors. 

The educational systems from the point of view of administra- 
tion are so much alike in the three most important states of Ger- 
many that it will here only be necessary to point out such differ- 
ences as do exist. A striking feature of the Saxon system is the 
predominance of professional influence. The recognition of nor- 
mal school training and a period of service in an elementary 
school as a qualification for admission to the University of Leip- 
zig has not only fostered professional interest and provided a 
strong stimulus for advanced study but has put a large number 
of men with experience of elementary school conditions and aca- 

"Regierungs-Bezirk Coslin, AmtUches Schulblatt, 1897, Nr. 6; quoted 
in Kretzsclimar, F., p. 58. 



Administrative Authorities 27 

demic training at the disposal of the government for higher ad- 
ministrative positions. A strong factor in the Saxon system is 
the annual meeting^^ of school inspectors to which well-qualified 
schoolmen are invited as well as representatives of the clerical 
and medical professions. At this conference the annual reports 
of the inspectors are made the subject of discussion. For admin- 
istrative purposes Saxony is much more compact, and since the 
interests are predominatingly commercial and industrial, presents 
far more uniform conditions than either Prussia or Bavaria. 
Owing to her size Saxony can dispense with one of the interme- 
diate educational authorities found in the other two countries. 
Hence the county subdivision is not found and the duties of the 
Provincial School Boards of Prussia and of the corresponding 
board of Bavaria (Kreisregierung) are performed by the Dis- 
trict Inspection Board {Bezirksinspektion). In the towns these 
boards consist of the town council and the district inspector, and 
elsewhere of this official and the executive commissioner 
(Amtshauptmann) . Although the pastors are ex oiUcio members 
of the local boards {S chMlvor stand) , their influence is largely 
limited to the supervision of religious instruction.^^ 

The Bavarian system is marked by clerical influence which is 
even more extensive than in Prussia.^** On the local school 
boards (Ortsschulbehorde) the pastor is chairman and in per- 
forming the functions of local school inspector may exercise his 
authority over any part of the instruction. Similarly the district 
school inspector (Distriktschulinspektor) is always a clergyman 
with some knowledge of pedagogy, and his appointment by the 
district school board (Distriktschulbeh'drde) must have the ap- 
proval of the church authorities.^^ The towns,^^ however, are 
only subject to the authority of the Kreisregierung, which cor- 
responds to the Provincial School Board. As in Prussia the 
towns are divided into wards with separate boards {Stadthezirks- 
schuHnspektion) , all of which with the addition of the mayor 
and the director of schools, if one is employed, constitute the 
town school board (Stadtsschulkommission) . It will be noticed 
that the constitution of this board differs from that of the town 



^^Seydewitz, Das konigliche Sachsische Volksschulgesetz, pp. 123-130. 
'•Seydewitz, p. 95. 

^"Stingl and Englmann, Handbuch des Bayerischen Volksschulrechts, 
pp. 15-34- ^^Ibid., pp. 45-93- ^Ibid., pp. 97-105. 



28 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

boards in Prussia. The larger administrative areas^^ (Kreis) 
are formed out of several districts and the administration of 
school matters is in the hands of an executive official (Kreis- 
schulreferent) who is assisted by a professional inspector and a 
board consisting of representatives of middle and girls' schools, 
normal schools, the clergy, laymen and elementary schools 
(Kreisschulkommission) . There are eight of these commissions 
throughout the country. The supreme authority is vested in a 
ministry which has charge of ecclesiastical as well as educational 
affairs (Ministerium fur Kirchen — und Schulangelegenheiten). 
Since 1905 a national commission including representatives of 
the district inspectors, normal, girls', trade and elementary 
schools, the clergy and lay members of school boards has been 
established.^* 

The administrative principle observed in the three states is 
decentralization with a system of checks. In the control of ele- 
mentary education there are concerned bodies with power over 
the single school district responsible to authorities with power 
over still larger areas until the supreme central organization is 
reached in the ministry. While the local committee builds, equips 
and maintains the schools and pays the teachers in part, another 
body sanctions the appointment of teachers and inspects the 
schools, still another is responsible for the training and examina- 
tion of teachers, while the central authority acts as a final court 
of appeal in cases of dispute and administrative difficulty, fixes 
the curriculum, establishes standards of attainment and so far as 
possible equalizes the burden of school support. But although 
the administrative machinery for securing local initiative is per- 
fect, it is to be noticed that this is confined to the externals of 
school management. Anything like an attempt to arrange the 
curriculum of an elementary school in response to local needs 
and conditions is unknown. Hence one school is much like an- 
other within any one state. Whether a growing professional 
sense and the presence of teachers on local boards, now demanded 
by law in all states, will ultimately succeed in breaking down the 
principle of bureaucratic control of the curriculum remains an 
open question. 

''Ibid., pp. 1 12-127. 

^P'ddagogisches Jahrbuch, 1905, p. iii. This may be compared with 
the consultative committees in England and France. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PREPARATORY TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

An important factor in a good system of training teachers is 
to secure that the candidates on entering the normal school have 
had an adequate preparation. The practice almost universal in 
Germany is to begin the training of teachers or rather to make 
the selection of candidates for the teaching profession about their 
fourteenth year. Technically speaking, however, only Prussia 
and Bavaria have a distinct system of preparatory institutions 
(Prdparandenanstalten) . But since these, though in administra- 
tion distinct from the normal schools, exist only to act as feeders 
for them, there is no reason for giving a separate treatment to 
the first three classes of the six-year normal school in Saxony, 
which begins with the fourteenth year. It is claimed^ for the 
Prussian and Bavarian systems of keeping the preparatory 
schools distinct from the normal schools that they possess the 
advantages of small institutions. The number of pupils to be 
dealt with is small and uniform aims can better be carried out. 
The directors and instructors can devote the whole of their at- 
tention to a smaller group. The separation of the boys from the 
young men is better for character-training, since the appropriate 
methods can be applied to each. The same arguments could of 
course be employed for splitting any school course of six or more 
years' duration into two parts. The tendency in both Prussia 
and Bavaria is to unite the preparatory school more intimately 
with the normal school in the same way as is done in Saxony, 
There is no doubt that the larger institution makes for adminis- 
trative efficiency. There is an absence of that break in the mid- 
dle of the six years with the heavy strain of an examination. 
Nor is any time lost through transference to a new situation. 
Further, a union into a six years' course admits of the employ- 

^Rein, Zur Reform der Lehrerbildung, Jahrbuch des Vereins fur wissen- 
schaftlische P'ddagogik (Dresden 1902). 

29 



30 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

ment of specialist teachers, which is highly desirable where 
advanced instruction is given and which cannot be introduced 
where there are only three classes. There is no doubt that of the 
three systems that in Saxony is best from the point of view of 
organization. 

The preparatory institutions of Prussia, although all working 
under the uniform curriculum issued in 1901, fall into three types, 
according to their administration — state, municipal, and private. 
At present there is a tendency for the state to increase the prer 
paratory institutions under its control. In the state and muni- 
cipal institutions the staff consists of a principal and two teach- 
ers. The principal must have the same qualifications as a normal 
school teacher, that is, he must have passed the examinations for 
teachers in middle schools and for principals in elementary 
schools.^ The assistant teachers^ must have passed the examina- 
tion for permanent appointment in an elementary school. An 
attempt is being made to raise the qualifications for the latter, 
but is not likely to succeed until the salaries are increased. These 
positions are usually taken by teachers who desire ultimately to 
enter the service of the normal schools. The salary of the prin- 
cipals of preparatory institutions ranges from 2100-3800 M. 
($525-950), that of the assistants from 1500-2400 M. ($375- 
600).* These teachers are state servants and as such are entitled 
to all the privileges of state servants, such as a pension and pro- 
vision for their widows and orphans. 

The private preparatory institutions are in most cases attached 
to' normal schools. Originally these were established by the 
faculty of the normal schools as commercial ventures as well as 
with the desire to secure properly prepared candidates for the 
normal school. Since 1892, however, the establishment of insti- 
tutions of this type must have the approval of the Minister,"* 
The administration in this case is in the hands of the director of 
the normal school, with which the institution is connected. In 
addition there are usually two assistant teachers, whose appoint- 
ment must be sanctioned by the Provincial School Board, but 
the director and instructors in the normal school are permitted 



^Bremen, p. 267. 
'Lexis, III, p. 253. 
^Bremen, p. 270. 
*Ibid., pp. 245-247. 



Preparatory Training of Teachers 3 1 

within certain restrictions to give instruction. The salaries are 
somewhat on the same scale as in the state and municipal insti- 
tutions, but for the time being the teachers are not state servants, 
although their years of service in a private preparatory institu- 
tion are counted, if they return to a regular school. By the same 
decree of 1892 the remuneration which the director and normal 
school instructors may receive for their services in the prepara- 
tory institution is fixed, and any money that is left over after the 
expenses of management have been paid must be applied to the 
support of poor pupils. A biennial report of the work of these 
institutions must be sent in to the Minister.® 

School fees are charged in all the preparatory institutions, vary- 
ing from 36 M. a year in the state and municipal institutions to 
100 M. in the private. Where the pupils board in the institution — 
only a very small number, however — from 400 to 600 M. a year 
are charged. Poor pupils receive support, but this in no case 
amounts to more than 25 M. a month. 

All candidates for entry into the preparatory institutions must 
send an application'^ to the director or principal, accompanied by 
certificates of baptism, health and vaccination endorsed by a 
state-recognized doctor, and reports on general school work and 
conduct. Candidates must be not less than fourteen years of age. 
There is an entrance examination, both written and oral, in the 
subjects of the elementary school.^ Particular emphasis is laid 
on the oral test. The examination usually takes place at the be- 
ginning of the normal school year, Easter in most parts of Prus- 
sia. Where the examination is held at a different period it is 
complained that inferior candidates who failed to pass into other 
institutions present themselves.® The normal number of pupils 
in a preparatory institution is fixed at thirty for each class in the 
three years' course. 

Whatever the administrative character of a preparatory insti- 
tution may be, they all conform in the matter of inner organiza- 
tion and curriculum to the Regulations and Course of Study of 
1901,^" which introduced uniformity into the training given in 



'Ibid., p. 247. 
^bid., p. 241. 
'Ibid., p. 241. 

•E.g. in the Rhineland and "Westphalia. 
Rept. U. S. Com. Educ., 1903, pp. 1233-1237. 



32 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

the preparatory institutions. The question is approached from 
two points of view, the origin of the pupils and the aim of the 
course. Since the pupils are drawn not only from different types 
of elementary schools, varying from the ungraded village school 
to the fully graded town school, but also in a few cases from 
middle or even high schools, the first year must be spent in bring- 
ing all the pupils to the same standard of attainment on the basis 
of the work of an upper grade in an elementary school. At the 
other end the preparatory institutions since 1901 form an organic 
whole with the normal schools, and so far as possible a great part 
of the academic training is given there. Some part of the curri- 
culum previously taught in the first two years of the normal 
school course were transferred to the preparatory institutions 
and there brought to a conclusion. Among these subjects are 
biblical history, catechism and hymns, elementary grammar and 
arithmetic, ancient history, natural history, and writing. While 
the Regulations aimed to secure so far as possible a separation of 
academic from professional instruction, it may* be questioned 
whether they have not succeeded in overburdening pupils in 
training at an earlier age in their career. 

The subjects of the curriculum in the preparatory institutions 
are religion, German and a foreign language, history, mathe- 
matics, natural science and geography, writing, drawing, music 
and gymnastics.^^ 

As may be expected from the historical development of the 
training of teachers in Germany and their present position as 
assistants to the pastors, considerable emphasis is laid on re- 
ligious instruction. While it is not necessary to go into any de- 
tails on the scope of this subject, it may be said that a dispropor- 
tionate amount of the time is devoted to it. The results are 
astounding for the amount which is memorized. Passages can 
be quoted by the pupils by chapter and verse, but as a general 
rule more time is devoted to the memorizing of the subject mat- 
ter than to the character-forming elements in it. 

Under German are included reading, grammar, and written 
and oral expression. Great stress is laid on the eradication of 
dialectical peculiarities and the use of pure German. While the 
reading is fairly extensive, it is almost entirely confined to the 
use of a " reader " containing selections of a very miscellaneous 

"For details of the curriculum see the Rept. U. S. Com. Educ, 1903. 



Preparatory Training of Teachers 33 

character in prose and poetry. Attention is paid to both form and 
content, hut in the treatment of poems the tendency to analyze 
and to dwell on the parts to the detriment of the whole is marked. 
Literary history as such is not taught apart from the selections 
from the classical productions contained in the reader. Only 
one drama is definitely assigned in the course of study, but the 
pupils are encouraged to supplement their school by outside read- 
ing. In the absence of good library facilities and through lack 
of time this provision can hardly be put into practice. Written 
and oral composition are based on the work done in the class- 
room. A characteristic of the German class-room is the atten- 
tion devoted to oral expression on the part of the pupils. On the 
other hand, although the pupils are given frequent opportunities 
for speaking, they rarely get beyond a repetition of what the 
teacher has said, and in many cases exact verbal repetition is in- 
sisted upon. The occasions for spontaneous expression from the 
pupils are as rare as the asking of a question. Although the use 
of text-books has been eliminated, their place has been taken by 
the dictations of the teacher. It is true that the pupils are not 
allowed to take notes, but their attention while the teacher is talk- 
ing is so acute that the reproductions are very faithful. In spite 
of the care devoted to the teaching of grammar, great difficulty 
is found in eradicating mistakes from the written composition, 
which in most cases are due to peculiarities of dialect. The 
teaching of grammar is of the type familiar to those who have 
studied Latin, and as much care is bestowed by the German 
pupils to the exceptions as by any foreign student of the lan- 
guage. 

French is the foreign language most frequently taught, though 
English is recognized as an alternative. Little need be said about 
the teaching of French, except that as at present taught both in 
the preparatory institutions and in the normal schools it is 
merely a waste of time to retain it on the program. Whether it 
is that the pupils are too old, when they begin the study of a 
foreign language, or that the teachers themselves are inadequately 
prepared, success is rarely attained. Generally the pronunciation 
is very poor and the knowledge of the grammar unsatisfactory. 
This state of things is unfortunate, as it is seized upon by those 
who are opposed to a more liberal training of the teachers as an 
instance of the poor capacities of a class. But it would be unjust 



34 ' Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

to compare pupils in these institutions with those in the regular 
high schools, where languages are begun at an earlier age and 
are taught by specialists. It must be added, however, that little 
importance is attached to the foreign language in the examina- 
tions, either for entrance into the normal school or in the leaving 
examination, which serves as the first teachers' examination. 

Just as religious instruction is calculated to instil a reverence 
for the divine, so the aim of the teaching of history is to train the 
sense of national duty and loyalty to the reigning house. In ad- 
dition to German history some attention is given to the chief 
events in Greek and Roman history. The method employed is 
mainly of the drum and trumpet variety with a strong emphasis 
on the dates. Insisting on this point, one teacher thus admonished 
his class, "Be careful of your dates, or your history will not be 
on a secure basis." There is no attempt to trace larger move- 
ments or to enunciate broad principles. Like the other subjects 
history is largely a matter for memorizing. 

No subject is taught so well as mathematics, and here the in- 
fluence of Pestalozzianism can still be traced. In arithmetic the 
aim is to ensure accuracy and certainty in dealing with numbers. 
The examples are based on the needs of practical life with which 
the future teacher will have to deal. Considerable emphasis is 
laid on mental arithmetic. In the third year the pupils are intro- 
duced to algebra or "arithmetic with letters," and the connection 
between the two is clearly brought out. Geometry is also taught 
with considerable ability and affords one of the few occasions on 
which the pupils are permitted to do a little independent thinking. 

Natural science, which includes elementary botany, zoology, 
and physics as well as geography, belongs to the information sub- 
jects. Long lists of details and names are given, or simple exper- 
iments are performed by the teacher and the pupils must learn 
by heart or must be able, when called upon, to give an account 
of the experiment. Laboratory work is unknown in physics. In 
nature study the pupils are encouraged to collect plants on their 
excursions and these are named and classified at the next lesson. 
In geography the pupils display a skillful use of maps, but in 
general the topographical and political sides of the subject play 
an altogether too important part. 

An unnecessary amount of time is devoted to writing as a 
separate subject of study, and is continued for the three years. 



Preparatory Training of Teachers 35 

Although the official course of study prescrihes practice in writ- 
ing on the blackboard, this desirable training is too often 
neglected through lack of blackboard space. 

Perhaps no subject usurps so much time as music. The im- 
portance attached to this subject is as in the case of religion 
largely traditional and is a survival of the time when the teachers 
acted as precentors and organists. The subject now embraces 
vocal music, violin, pianoforte, organ and harmony. There is an 
exemption for students who do not possess pronounced ability 
from playing the organ, but very few pupils avail themselves of 
this. Although the subject is taught exceedingly well, most fre- 
quently by specialists, there seems to be a sacrifice of practical 
common sense to principle in compelling all pupils to learn every 
branch. Nor do the results justify the expenditure of time. The 
violin playing, which is intended to enable teachers to accompany 
their classes in singing, rarely attains a quality which would 
justify its retention in the class-room. Nor is the amount of time 
spent on drill and talking about the technique and theory likely 
to train the aesthetic side. The subject has been frequently 
attacked recently and there will probably be some change in the 
matter of requirements. 

Drawing like music is taught by speciaHsts in most cases. It 
is interesting in this connection to notice that the work of writers 
on the method of the subject in this country have attracted con- 
siderable attention. Usually the teacher is hampered by the lack 
of a satisfactory supply of models. Some part of the work is 
correlated with the other subjects, but the teachers of drawing 
jealously guard their subject from being made the servant of all 
the rest. More will be said on this subject later in dealing with 
it in the normal schools. 

A necessary antidote against the high temperature and the foul 
air usually found in the class-rooms, where windows are kept 
closed even in summer, are the gymnastic exercises. Here, how- 
ever, it has been noticed that the pupils of one preparatory insti- 
tution were drilled in an overheated and dusty gymnasium with 
all the windows shut at the very centre for the training of spec- 
ialist teachers of gymnastics. It must be added that swimming 
and skating are permitted as alternatives to a part of the gymnas- 
tic exercises. 



36 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

Throughout there is apparent a spirit of dogmatism on the 
part of the teachers and an exercise of authority which cannot 
fail to be cramping and narrowing to the intellect of their pupils. 
No one reading the course of study and the methodical instruc- 
tions could find any objections whatever to them. Unfortunately 
the spirit of the instructions is too often sacrificed in order to 
cover the amount of the work which is prescribed. The pupils 
in the preparatory institutions are overburdened with work 
largely because so much importance is attached to memorizing 
everything that is assigned. How much time is left for recrea- 
tion may be seen from the time-tables, of which a copy is given.^^ 
Where the pupils board at the school, they have at any rate the 
advantage of retiring to bed at a definite hour. The externs, how- 
ever, are not so carefully supervised in their own homes. If the 
proposal to unite the preparatory institutions more intimately with 
the normal schools were put into operation, there would be a re- 
laxation of the present strain, for apart from the extent of the 
curriculum the evil of preparing for the entrance examination 
into the normal schools and the responsibility of the teachers 
make themselves felt. 

Although Saxony^^ maintains a normal school course begin- 
ning at 14 and continuing for six years without the distinction 
into preparatory institutions and normal school proper, there is 
no reason why the first three years of the course should not be 
treated in this chapter. The entrance qualifications are the same 
as in Prussia, that is, candidates must be not less than 14 years 
of age and must be able to pass an examination in the subjects of 
a graded school {mittlere Volksschule) . In addition to the certi- 
ficates demanded in Prussia all candidates must sign a declaration 
(Revers) of their willingness to accept any appointment offered 
to them by the school authorities for three years after leaving the 
normal school on pain of paying 120 M. for each year spent in 
the school. A similar declaration is signed by the Prussian can- 
didates on their entrance into the normal school proper. No fees 
are charged in Saxony, but the expenses of board and lodging, 
which amount on an average to 205 M. a year, are borne by tiie 

*^See appendix. 

^'Kretzschmar, J. F. Hoheres Schulwesen, in Sachsen, p. 86 and pp. 
379-384. 



Preparatory Training of Teachers 3 7 

pupils unless they receive some government support. There are 
usually twenty to twenty-five pupils in a whole school in receipt 
of support, but in no case is the full amount of the cost of board 
and lodging paid. 

The Saxon normal schools are regulated by a law^* of Aug. 
22, 1876, and the instructions for the operation of the law issued 
on Jan. 29, 1877.^° The curriculum is the same as that of the 
Prussian preparatory institutions and normal schools with the ex- 
ception that Latin takes the place of French. But the similarity 
between the two states ends here, for there is an entirely different 
spirit in the class-rooms of the Saxon normal schools. In the 
first place the teachers up to about fifty per cent, have had aca- 
demic training in addition to their experience as elementary 
school teachers. Hence many of these are specialists in one or 
more fields. A second feature is the absence of the tone of the 
drill-sergeant which too often is to be noticed in Prussia. More 
emphasis is laid on the individuality of the pupils than on a 
repetition of the words of the instructor. Thus if the pupils do 
not learn as much German literature by heart in the Saxon 
schools, they are better trained to appreciate its beauties. Litera- 
ture is taught more systematically and the reading-book has been 
discarded for the masterpieces of German prose and poetry. And 
in the same way in the other subjects there is less memorizing and 
repetition and a greater interchange of activity between the 
teachers and the pupils. To one who visits the Saxon normal 
schools immediately after the Prussian the impression might al- 
most be conveyed that there was a slackness in discipline, merely 
because of the military precision found in the latter. Into the 
scope of the subjects it is not necessary to enter/^ inasmuch as 
they largely cover the same ground as in Prussia. Considerable 
time is given to Latin and at the end of the six years the pupils 
have a good command of the grammar and can read at sight with 
a certain amount of facility. Music is not compulsory in all its 
branches, but all pupils must learn singing. Two examinations 
are held in each class during the year, but promotions are made 

**Gesctz fiber die Gjnnnasien, Realschulen und Seminare vom 22 Aug., 
1876. 

^'Verordnung des Kult. Min. zur Ausffihrung des Gesctzes fiber die 
Gym., etc., vom 29 Jan., 1877. 

"See Elretzschmar, J. P., p. 86 and pp. 352-379. 



3 8 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

on the general standing for the whole year. The Saxon system 
has the advantage that the pupils have not to make new adjust- 
ments; the work is continuously maintained, the faculty has a 
better opportunity of knowing the pupils, and there is not the 
difficulty, which presents itself in Prussia, of pulling the pupils 
of the first year of the normal school together. One reform is 
mentioned as likely to take place within the next few years. It 
is very probable that an extra year will be added to the course 
and the age of admission will be reduced to thirteen and the first 
year will then be spent in securing a homogeneous class to begin 
the real work of the normal school in the second year. At 
Grimma a preparatory class has already been introduced unoffi- 
cially. Whether this reform is in the right direction is an open 
question and the answer must depend upon the attitude which is 
taken up with regard to the system as it exists at present. But 
that the Saxon system compares very favorably with the Prussian 
there can be no doubt, and the advantage of Saxony comes 
almost entirely from the application of the methods of the secon- 
dary school and the grant of the rank of secondary schools to in- 
stitutions which have to deal with boys over fourteen years of 
age. By this means a better class of teachers is secured and a 
spirit of scholarship is introduced. 

In Bavaria^'^ the same system of separate institutions for the 
preparation of pupils for the normal schools prevails as in Prus- 
sia, with the exception that the candidates must enter prepara- 
tory institution connected with the normal school to which they 
have been assigned. The preparatory institutions are under the 
charge of a principal and two assistant teachers. The principal 
receives his appointment from the King, the assistants, who are 
selected from elementary school teachers, from the Minister of 
the educational department. The assistants receive from 1860- 
2940 M. ($465-735) per year and have the privileges of state 
servants. The salary of the principal is the same as that of a 
normal school teacher. The preparatory institutions are inspected 
by the district inspectors and the director of the affiliated normal 
school. Higher authorities also have the right of inspection, but 
this is usually delegated. Candidates for entrance must be be- 
tween 13-17 years of age and must be able to pass an examina- 

"Englmann, pp. 144-158. 



Preparatory Training of Teachers 39 

tion in the subjects of the seventh year of an elementary school. 
In the majority of the Bavarian preparatory institutions the 
pupils board and lodge in houses approved by the authorities. 
Support is given to deserving pupils in sums ranging from 52- 
120 M. a year. The curriculum differs from that of Prussia only 
in the time allotments for certain subjects. Religious instruction 
is given by the local pastor. A foreign language is not taught. 
A pupil's promotion depends on his work throughout the year, 
and at the end of the three years a leaving certificate is not given, 
but an examination for entrance into the normal school must be 
passed. It is proposed as soon as the means can be obtained to 
make the connection of the preparatory institutions with the nor- 
mal schools more real than at present and to add a sixth year to 
the course. 

But the question of what constitutes adequate preparation or 
what should be the appropriate institution for giving this prepara- 
tion has not been settled in Germany, as may be seen in the re- 
ports of the proceedings of teachers' associations and other bodies 
interested in education. As at present constituted the system of 
preparatory training is based on a thoroughly German principle. 
Measuring qualifications by the amount and character of subject- 
matter covered instead of by intellectual efficiency, the authori- 
ties seem to have worked back from the goal to be attained, ini 
this case the equipment of an elementary school teacher, and 
have organized their system accordingly. Hence comes the uni- 
formity of prerequisites within each state and the single, definite 
course which all who wish to enter the teaching profession must fol- 
low. This principle prevails in all walks of life, giving rise to a 
narrow caste-system. The career of a boy is marked out for him 
by the school which he attends. But while the learned profes- 
sions are numerous, the boy who begins his preparation for the 
normal school has nothing before him but the teaching profes- 
sion. There is a strong division of opinion on this question. It 
is felt, on the one hand, that 14, the age at which preparation at 
present begins, is too early an age to make the choice of a pro- 
fession ; that this brings with it all the dangers of early specializa- 
tion, narrowness, lack of sustained interest and routine methods ; 
that the separation in institutions apart from boys destined for 
other professions is calculated to produce the same results. It is 



40 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

argued, on the other hand, by those who agree with Professor 
Rein^^ that the present system has advantages which compensate 
for these dangers. The specialized institution is necessarily small, 
hence the influence of the faculty can make itself better felt and 
a more uniform system can be maintained. Such instruction as 
will prepare directly for the normal school can be given to the 
exclusion of extraneous matter. No other type of school, for 
example, can give the requisite amount of religious or musical 
training. In the gymnasium too much attention is given to the 
ancient languages for which the elementary school teacher will 
have little use. In the modern schools science and languages are 
taught to a greater extent than will be required in the normal 
schools and too little attention is paid to the mother tongue, which 
is of the highest importance to the future teacher of the people. 
Lastly, to admit pupils from different types of schools with a 
variety of training would lead to difficulties of organization in 
the normal schools. 

A reform of the system is at present proposed which should 
bring the preparatory institutions into line with the other high 
schools. While it is thought that these do not give either the 
right kind or the right amount of instruction in the subjects 
which are thought desirable for an elementary school teacher, the 
force of the objection that there is danger in the separation which 
at present exists is being recognized. It is now proposed that in- 
stead of allowing candidates to prepare in any secondary school 
in order to reap the advantages of associating with boys looking 
to other professions, the preparatory institutions should be ex- 
tended by a year and should admit pupils who do not propose to 
enter normal schools. Such schools would correspond in a 
measure to higher elementary or middle schools and would include 
a foreign language in the curriculum. Such a system would, how- 
ever, only meet with success in small towns removed from the 
competition of a secondary school and the prestige accompanying 
it. At the same time Rein^® suggests that pupils from the Real and 
Oherrealschule should be permitted to enter the normal schools, re- 
ceiving full credit for the standard which they have attained. 

"Rein, Zur Reform der Lehrerbildung. Jahrbuch des Vereins fiir 
wissenschaftliche P'dagogik. (Dresden, 1902.) ' 
"Ibid., Der deutsche Schulmann, 1902. 



Preparatory Training of Teachers 41 

The general course, however, would be to attend the specialized 
school, which would stand in the same relation to the normal 
school as the gymnasium to the university or the Oberrealschule to 
the technical high school. This proposal, though perhaps not 
meeting the views of the teaching body as a whole, which would 
prefer to allow the preparation to be made in any type of school, 
has been supported by other educationalists of experience.^" But 
whatever the theoretical opinion on the subject may be, it is 
highly probable that the present system will be retained in prac- 
tice. An additional year may be introduced into the course, or 
some modifications may be made in the curriculum, but the train- 
ing of teachers will continue to be given in institutions separated 
from the general school system. 

'"E.g. Sejrfert, Vorschlage zur Reform der Lehrerbildung (Leipzig, 
1905); Schmidt, A. M., in Mitteilungen des Vereins der Freunde Herbar- 
tischer Padagogik in Thtiringen (Langensalza, 1907). 



CHAPTER IV 

THE NORMAL SCHOOLS (VOLKSSCHULLEHRER- 
SEMINARIEN) 

The training of teachers in Germany is entirely a matter of 
state control. Each state has its own system and maintains uni- 
formity within its own territory. Although provision is made, 
for example, in Prussia for the examination of candidates for 
school appointments who have not been trained in a normal school, 
such cases very rarely occur.^ The only instance where private 
preparation is recognized in Prussia is in the training of female 
teachers, but the next few years will probably see a change in this 
practice. But even in this case the normal schools are guided by 
the requirements for the government examination and, as already 
mentioned, by the regulations for the state normal school for wo- 
men at Droyssig.^ In Saxony there also exist provisions for the 
examination of extern candidates, but very few avail themselves 
of these. An exception is, however, made in the case of those who 
have passed the examination for appointment in a higher school 
at the University of Leipzig and in the case of candidates for the 
ministry. The former are eligible at once for permanent appoint- 
ment in an elementary school, the latter only after passing the 
regular second examination.^ Regulations for the female normal 
schools were included in the general law of 1876 for gymnasiums, 
real schools and normal schools.* 

The Prussian authorities recognize the temporary appointment 
of teachers who have obtained their training and qualifications in 
some other German state, provided only that they pass the second 
examination for permanent appointment in due course.^ Foreign- 



^Bremen, p. 265. 

^See Ch. I; Central-Blatt, 1892, p. 414. 
'Seydewitz, pp. 62, 63. 
^Kretzsciitnar, J. F., pp. 92-100. 
•Bremen, p. 368. 

42 



The Normal Schools 43 

ers must obtain the approval of the Minister before they can be 
permitted to teach in a German school, although by a decree of 
1885 women teachers trained within the state are to be preferred. 
More liberality is shown in the inter-state recognition without 
further examination of women teachers than of men.^ In Saxony 
candidates who have obtained the qualifications for temporary 
appointment outside the state must in each case receive the ap- 
proval of the Minister before they can be appointed, and must 
undertake to present themselves for the examination for perma- 
nent appointment (Wahlfdhigkeitspriifung) J 

The normal schools in Prussia are under the direct supervision 
of the Provincial School Boards and are maintained almost wholly 
at the expense of the state. The pupils pay no fees but must pay 
for their board, which amounts on an average to about one mark 
(25c.) a day. Slightly more than two-fifths of the students board 
in the normal schools.^ The teachers find a cause for grievance 
against the boarding system, seeing in it another attempt to curb 
their independence. Since the majority of the preparatory insti- 
tutions are not boarding-schools, many of the pupils are brought 
under the rigid discipline of the Internat for the first time, when 
they have reached the age of seventeen, and should be trained in 
habits of independence and self-direction. And the discipline of 
the normal school is indeed rigorous. The work of every hour 
of the day is definitely mapped out in the daily ordinances of each 
school (Tagesordnung) .^ Instead of being brought into contact 
with the world in which in some measure they are to be leaders, 
the normal school pupils are carefully withdrawn from it. Free 
organizations and societies among the pupils are unknown or are 
very rare. Athletics are gradually being introduced but have not 
the approval of the authorities, who have pinned their faith in 
gymnastics and organized physical training. Nor is the accom- 
modation at all elaborate. The dormitories contain from twenty 
to ninety beds and are not always very well ventilated. The study- 
rooms are shared by six to eight boys and contain nothing but a 
large table and chairs. The walls are in most cases bare of pic- 
tures and the idea of alumni presentations has not yet been intro- 

'Ibid., pp. 360-362. 
'Seydewitz, p. 62. 
^Central-Blatt, 1909, p. 780. 
•See appendix. 



44 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

duced. In respect of food the pupils have nothing to complain of, 
and good substantial fare is provided. The internal arrangements 
of the normal schools in Prussia are contracted out to a steward 
(Oekonom), who usually finds this a profitable undertaking. On 
the whole, however, one cannot resist the feeling that there is 
something military or monastic about the system. Instances of 
genuine personal friendship between an instructor and pupils are 
rarely met with. The instructor is in every case in the position of 
a superior and the pupils must keep their distance. That there are 
exceptions goes without saying and in this connection it may be 
mentioned that a new type of director is gradually being intro- 
duced, who is acquainted with schools and institutions different 
from the normal schools. Very often the martinet belongs to the 
period of 1872 and received his training under the influence of 
the reaction. There is no doubt that when this type is superseded 
a freer atmosphere will be found in the normal schools. But the 
boarding system is a survival of the reactionary and clerical influ- 
ence. At present it is justified on the grounds that the pupils re- 
ceive better accommodation at the price which they are paying, 
than they could obtain by boarding with private families. On the 
other hand the system of permitting the pupils to board in ap- 
proved homes is found very satisfactory in a normal school not 
very far from Berlin, although even here the spirit of distrust is 
retained and the instructors must make tours of inspection every 
evening. But nothing can make up for the influence and sur- 
roundings of the home, nor is there any attempt to provide any- 
thing to replace these. 

Just as the retention of the boarding system is due to the early 
clerical influence, so the location of normal schools in Prussia in 
small towns is due to the political reaction of 1848. A suspicion 
then engendered that the teachers were taking too much part in 
politics and were otherwise indulging in too high aspirations led 
to the banishment of the normal schools from the larger towns. 
In this way the pupils are deprived of the beneficial influences of 
the large town, such as museums, libraries, concerts and theatres. 
And the same policy has also a narrowing influence on the in- 
structors. In this way the elementary school teachers, who in 
most cases are drawn from the country and must hold their first 
appointment in a rural school, are deprived of an experience which 
could not fail to be educative. This policy will, however, con- 



The Normal Schools 45 

tinue to be maintained. As an instance may be quoted the fact 
that the Normal School for Training City School Teachers 
{Seminar fur Stadtschullehrer) is being removed from Berlin to 
a suburb. It is interesting to notice that the normal schools for 
women teachers are attached to large secondary schools for girls, 
are extern and are situated in the larger towns. 

Buildings and equipment for normal schools are provided by 
the state. By a decree of 1864 land for such buildings must be 
given free by the communities.^" Until recently the buildings 
conformed to one general plan ; they were rather long, were built 
of red brick and had two projecting wings. More recent struc- 
tures, however, display more individuality and are architecturally 
more ambitious. The following is the usual equipment of a Prus- 
sian normal school :^^ 

1. Two or three class-rooms, each to accommodate thirty pu- 
pils. 

2. A large class-room to accommodate two classes together. 

3. An assembly-room, containing an organ. 

4. Several music rooms, containing organs and pianos. 

5. A practice-school with class-rooms large enough to admit 
the presence of a few students. 

6. A drawing-room. 

7. A class-room for instruction in physics and chemistry with 
seats arranged in tiers and with a table for performing experi- 
ments and cabinets for apparatus, etc. 

8. A library. 

9. A gymnasium. 
10. A large garden. 

Such is the general equipment of the normal schools. But the 
majority of the buildings are antiquated, so that it would be un- 
just to pass any criticism on them. Suffice it to say that generally 
the class-rooms are badly ventilated and lighted, that in many 
cases the ceilings are almost black, that the drawing-rooms are 
inadequately lighted, and that the science rooms contain but the 
one table on which the instructors alone can perform experiments. 
The apparatus for physics and the chemical supplies are always 
kept in the one room often to the detriment of the former. Sup- 

*°Breinen, p. 280. 
"Ibid., pp. 280-281. 



46 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

plies depend on the request of the instructors but there is neither 
haste nor generosity in meeting the demands. The seating accom- 
modation in the class-rooms is very poor. Individual desks are 
unknown. Usually the pupils sit at long desks, six in a row, and 
frequently, when a pupil is called out to the board, he must climb 
over the others in his row. The organs, of which there are gen- 
erally three in each normal school, a.nd the pianos represent the 
largest item in the expenditure. The organ and music rooms are 
by no means sound-proof and, as pupils are practising throughout 
the day, there is always some accompaniment to the work of the 
class-rooms. Apart from the most necessary equipment the class- 
rooms are very barely furnished, and if they contain any pictures 
at all, these are of a religious character or are portraits of members 
of the reigning house. An exception must be made in favor of 
the assembly-halls (Aula), which are frequently adorned with 
valuable frescoes. The most pleasing part in the equipment of a 
normal school is the garden, which is well kept by the pupils. 

The faculty of a Prussian normal school consists of the direc- 
tor, a chief assistant (Oberseminarlehrer) and five or six ordinary 
assistants {ordentliche Seminarlehrer) . Great care is exercised 
in their selection, not only because their work differs from that of 
other teachers in so far as they have different material and differ- 
ent aims to deal with, but also because they have the responsi- 
bility of training teachers who in turn are to bring up a people 
loyal to the established order of government, as was pointed out 
in a letter sent by the Kaiser and Bismarck to the Ministry in 
1890.^^ The requirements for appointment in the normal schools 
are very strictly laid down in theory, but are frequently departed 
from in the appointment of the director. All candidates must 
have passed the ordinary examinations for elementary school 
teachers and in addition the examinations for appointment in an 
intermediate school (Mittelschule) and as principals of elemen- 
tary schools.^^ Thus the majority of candidates are men w'ho 
have been trained in the normal schools originally and after that 
course have educated themselves. Two implications follow from 
this — that the old traditions of the normal schools are perpetuated, 
and the instructors have the defects of self-educated men, a cer- 



"Bretnen, p. 230. 

«Ibid., p. 267, and Ch. VIII. 



The Normal Schools 47 

tain narrowness and inclination to dogmatism. A new type of 
normal school instructors is at present being introduced in rapidly 
increasing numbers. These are men who have had a university 
education and have passed the examination for appointment as 
teachers in secondary schools (Oberlehrerexamen) . They must 
further pass the examination for appointment as principals of ele- 
mentary schools. If they have not taught before, they are em- 
ployed for a year in a normal school at a very small salary, not 
more than loo M. a month, in order to make themselves ac- 
quainted with the work (informatorische Beschaftigung). At the 
end of this period they are appointed on probation for three 
months. The university trained men are singled out very soon 
for the positions of chief assistants, from which they may look 
forward to promotion as directors of normal schools or as district 
school inspectors. Without dwelling on the question of the injus- 
tice done to older men by the rapid advancement of the young 
university graduate, there can be no doubt that the new policy 
will infuse much needed reform in the traditional groove into 
which the normal schools have fallen, provided always that a care- 
ful selection is made to secure men who have a genuine interest 
in the elementary schools and in the training of teachers for these 
schools. At present the majority of the normal school teachers 
are normal school graduates, while the chief assistants are equally 
divided between normal school and university graduates. The 
directors are, with the exception of only sixteen cases, university 
graduates. An enquiry made in 1900 showed that of 118 direc- 
tors 63 or 53 per cent, had taken a theological and 30 a literary 
course at the university.^* 

The question of the best preparation for normal school instruc- 
tors is still a matter of debate in Prussia. While it is recognized 
that the appointment of normal school graduates would lead to 
the dangers of inbreeding, it is at the same time admitted that 
while university graduates would help to raise the standards, the 
universities do not at present afiford a satisfactory training in 
pedagogy and the allied subjects as a preparation for school work. 
The best course would be to combine a training at the normal 
schools with some training at the universities. It should be 
pointed out, however, that graduation from a normal school is not 

^*Rept. U. S. Com. Educ. ,igoo, p. 202. 



48 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

considered as a fulfillment of the requirements for entrance into 
a Prussian university, although normal school graduates may 
enter as auditors.^^ 

For the present the training of normal school teachers at the 
universities is impossible. The government, however, has ar- 
ranged a special course since 1897 for this purpose in Berlin.^* 
Provision is made for thirty students who are drawn from the 
ranks of middle school, preparatory and normal school teachers, 
school inspectors and young university graduates. These are 
recommended by the County and Provincial School Boards to the 
attention of the ministry, owing to special merit. They must 
bind themselves by an agreement to serve in a normal school for 
eight years after completing the course. There are no fees to 
pay and the state gives bursaries of 125 M. per month for main- 
tenance.^^ The length of the course has not yet been definitely 
settled and it has varied from its institution from one to two years. 
At present its duration is one year, and this will very shortly be 
extended to eighteen months. The course is mainly academic, but 
in addition to lectures includes visits to museums, art collections 
and educational institutions. The lectures are given by some of 
the most prominent professors and scholars to be found in Berlin. 
The students may also attend lectures at the university as audi- 
tors. The following subjects are obligatory on all students: 
(i)pedagogy and philosophy, (2) German language and litera- 
ture, (3) history of art and civilization, (4) hygiene, (5) econo- 
mics. In addition there are optional courses in mathematics, 
geography, physics, chemistry, zoology, physiology of speech, 
history, English and French, and social economics {Wohlfahrts- 
kunde). Besides affording a training in the academic subjects 
the course further aims at instructing the students in the spirit of 
the regulations and decrees issued by the ministry. There is an 
inclination on the part of those who have taken the course to criti- 
cize it because there is no provision for a final examination and 
some diploma or a degree, as a spur to continued effort during its 

"Lexis, Vol. Ill, pp. 248-254; Padagogisches Jahrhuch, 1907, p. 207: 
Schoppa, G., Die Bestimmungen des Koniglich preussischen Ministers 
der geistlichen, Unterrichts-und Medizinalangelegenheiten (Leipzig, 
1909), p. 135. 

"Lexis, p. 251. 

" Central- Blatt, 1898, p. 714. 



The Normal Schools 49 

short duration. Petty though this criticism is, it would not have 
been found necessary to mention it, had it not been raised by sev- 
eral teachers. A more important objection is that the course is 
entirely academic and to that extent divorced from the practice of 
the class-room. In general, however, there is an inclination on 
the part of elementary and normal school teachers to view the 
course with suspicion as a mere subterfuge on the part of the gov- 
ernment to delay their admission to the universities. 

Another practice^® which also serves as a means for the train- 
ing of normal school instructors is to visit other normal schools. 
Once in five years an instructor in a normal school may obtain 
leave of absence for fourteen days for the purpose of visiting 
from three to four normal schools. The expenses of travelling are 
borne by the state. The aim is to obtain an acquaintance with 
practice in different parts of the country. In practice, however, 
the system does not justify itself, because of the uniformity 
throughout the state which does not afford a sufficient variety of 
experience. But the suggestion contained in the practice is val- 
uable. A report of the work seen without any criticism must be 
sent to the Ministry. 

There are further courses for the preparation of specialist 
teachers in music, drawing and gymnastics. Teachers of music 
receive their training at the Academical Institute for church 
music,^^ which also undertakes the training of organists, choir- 
leaders and cantors. The course, which is open to candidates of 
musical ability who have already passed the first examination for 
elementary school teachers, extends over eighteen months and in- 
cludes instruction in the playing of the organ, piano, and violin, 
singing, harmony, and counterpoint. The number of students ad- 
mitted to each course is limited to twenty, and permission to sit 
for the entrance examination is at the discretion of the Minister. 
Candidates pay no fees, but must maintain themselves at their own 
expense during their stay in Berlin. There is no final examina- 
tion, but each student receives a certificate endorsed by the mem- 
bers of the faculty setting forth the qualifications shown for work 
in any of the branches for which the Institute prepares. 

Special courses for teachers of drawing are offered by a num- 
ber of schools of art, the most important of which is the Royal 

**Lexis, Vol. Ill, p. 253. 
^*Sch6ppa, pp. 126-129. 



50 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

School of Art in Berlin.^*' Candidates, who must already be in 
service, are admitted to the examination for entrance into any of 
these schools on the presentation of some original work of art. 
The course lasts for two years and those who desire to become 
teachers of drawing in graded elementary, middle, secondary and 
normal schools, must pass a state examination. Besides the ordi- 
nary branches of drawing and painting there are also tests on the 
history of art and method. The candidates receive certificates 
showing their qualifications to teach drawing either in the lower 
or the higher schools. ^^ 

For those who wish to specialize in the teaching of gymnastics 
a course is offered centrally at the Royal Training Institution for 
Teachers of Gymnastics in Berlin.^^ Facilities are also afforded 
in other towns. Candidates must be medically fit and must pass 
a number of tests in gymnastics before they are admitted. There 
are no fees to be paid and in some cases the state gives small al- 
lowances for maintenance. The duration of the course is one 
year and preparation- is given for the state examination for 
teachers of gymnastics,^^ which is based on a knowledge of the 
theory of physical exercise, anatomy, hygiene and first aid to the 
injured, as well as ability to perform exercises and to teach the 
subject. The successful candidates receive appointments in 
schools for which they already have qualifications. 

The division of the instructors into directors, chief assistants, 
and ordinary assistants has already been mentioned. There seems 
to be no principle underlying the appointment of the chief assis- 
tants (Oberlehrer) . It may be due either to private influence or 
to merit. At present the tendency is to appoint young men who 
have had an academic training and show promise of becoming the 
future administrators of the state. There is a distinction in the 
salaries according to these three grades. The directors receive 
from 40CX)-66oo M. ($1000-1650) ; chief assistants 3000-4800 M. 
($750-1200) ; ordinary assistants 2400-4200 M. ($600-1050). To 
these sums must of course be added a free house or compensation 
for rent, the use of a part of the garden frequently attached to a 
normal school, and the right to a pension. 



*°Sch6ppa, p. 136. 
"Ibid., pp. 182-188. 
"Ibid, pp. 131. 134. 
''Ibid., pp. 177-182. 



The Normal Schools 



SI 



The number of pupils in a normal school is usually ninety, or 
thirty to a class. The cases of variation from this number are not 
frequent. When the demand for teachers becomes very pressing, 
extra classes are established. It is difficult to make any general- 
ization about the grades of society from which the pupils are 
drawn. Formerly the majority were the sons of farmers or farm 
laborers. At present the tendency seems to be in the direction of 
an increase in the number of sons of civil and municipal servants 
of lower rank to enter the teaching profession. A few tables will 
be given for the sake of comparison, although this task is made 
difficult by the differences in classification and grouping.^* 

PRUSSIA 



Parents' Occupation 



Percentage op 
Teachers 




Agriculture and gardening 

Mining, manufacture and building 

Trade and commerce 

Servants and day laborers 

Civil and municipal servants and professions (includ- 
ing teachers) 

Without calling 



33-55 

27 .40 

II. 18 

.64 

22 . 70 
4-53 



The percentage of those whose parents were teachers in ele- 
mentary and middle schools was 17.73 i^i T-9o6 as against 18.90 
in 1901, showing a decrease which was probably due to the agi- 
tation among teachers for an increase in salary. 

A table of 1906 for the Duchy of Gotha^^ shows that of the 
teachers 67.34 per cent, came from the country districts and 32.66 
per cent, from towns. According to the occupation of their par- 
ents they were divided as follows : 

Parents' Occupation Percentage 

Trade and commerce 40 . 70 

Agriculture 33-88 

Civil and municipal servants and professions (including teachers, 

13.30 per cent.) 23 . 73 

Artisans 1-45 

Without calling 1.24 

^Padagogisches Jahrbuch, 1907, p. 177. 
"Ibid., 1906, p. 117. 



52 . Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

For Saxony^® the following table from a normal school with two 
hundred and forty pupils may be taken as representative of the 
classes of society from which the future members of the teaching 
profession are recruited : 

Parents' Occupation Percentage 

Trade and commerce 32 . ro 

Agriculture and gardening 6 . 66 

Civil and municipal servants (including teachers, 12.50 per cent.) 30 . 83 

Artisans 29.16 

Without occupation 1-25 

The marked differences between Prussia and Saxony can be ac- 
counted for not only by the fact that the one country is predomi- 
nantly agricultural, while the other is chiefly industrial, but also 
because the salaries paid in Saxony were until recently far higher 
than those paid in Prussia. A striking feature of both tables is 
the small proportion of pupils who are the sons of teachers. It is 
generally admitted, however, in Germany that the sons of teachers 
usually attain to a rank in life above that of their parents. 

But however varied the origin of the pupils the rigorous disci- 
pline of the preparatory institutions and the normal schools re- 
duces them to uniformity. No encouragement is given to culti- 
vate individual tastes. And indeed the long working day makes 
outside activities almost impossible. In some normal schools op- 
portunities for free associations in charge of an instructor are 
given. These take the form of chess clubs, scientific societies and 
clubs along other lines of interest, and meet once a week, usually 
on Sundays. But debating, glee, orchestral, literary societies are 
not usual. Such time as can be spared the pupils employ in loung- 
ing round the towns, making purchases or in walking. For gen- 
eral reading there does not seem to be either the necessary time or 
facilities. Although every normal school has a library, it is 
usually stocked with old text-books. The arrangements for the 
use of the libraries vary. In some schools the library is open once 
a month for the exchange of books ; in others once in two weeks. 
In no case does the pupils have access to the shelves. The library 
is in charge of one of the instructors, assisted by a pupil. It Is 
said that the pupils do not read much outside their school work, 
because they already have enough to read in connection with the 

^'Based on the returns of the parents' occupations given in the register 
of a normal school in Saxony. 



The Normal Schools S3 

literary course. But as the time-tables and the libraries are or- 
ganized at present no encouragement is offered to the pupils to 
pursue general reading. 

There are two half holidays each week and these are employed 
in taking longer walks, if not in making up the class-work. Once 
a month there is a whole holiday in which the pupils must revise 
such of the work as they are backward in or have missed in class. 

The supervision of the students outside the class-rooms is taken 
in turns by the instructors. A measure of responsibility is dele- 
gated to the senior student of the school, who acts as the interme- 
diary between the director and the pupils, and to the senior stu- 
dents of the study-rooms. It is the duty of these to maintain 
order in their respective rooms and to appoint some pupil to keep 
the room clean and tidy. Further there are class-room and other 
monitors, and the general scheme makes for a mechanical perfor- 
mance of the daily round. A scale of penalties or punishments 
does not exist because it is not necessary. A word of censure is 
sufficient to cow the oldest pupil into obedience. A report to the 
director might easily be fraught with serious consequences. 
Hence there is an almost painful orderliness and quiet about the 
normal schools even during free periods. 

The broad features of the Prussian normal schools are repro- 
duced in Saxony, and yet there is a marked difference between the 
two. The Saxon schools seem to be devoid of that system of 
mechanical routine, of that suppression of the individual which 
are so marked in Prussia. The Saxon normal schools are of 
course larger, since they have twice the number of classes, but the 
effects of discipline are not so oppressively felt. The reason for 
the difference has already been suggested. 

The number of the members on the faculty of a normal school 
in Saxony is not fixed. According to the law of 1876 up to one- 
third of the instructors must be elementary school teachers with- 
out academic qualifications.^'^ These should be appointed to give 
the practical training and to teach in the practice school. Apart 
from the specialist teachers in drawing and music the rest of the 
instructors are men with academic training who have passed the 
examination for appointment in a higher school or the pedagogical 
examination at the University of Leipzig. The former examina- 



"Kretzschmar, J. F., p. 89. 



54 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

tion^^ is held before a royal examining commission. It is both 
written and oral and extends over academic and professional sub- 
jects. All candidates must pass in philosophy, pedagogy, German 
literature and religion. The professional subjects are those which 
the candidate expects to teach in a higher school. Three subjects 
must be selected from the following : Christian religion, elements 
of philosophy, German, Latin, Greek, French, English, history, 
geography, pure mathematics, applied mathematics, physics, 
chemistry, mineralogy, botany and zoology. In addition three 
theses must be prepared and a model lesson in some subject 
selected by the candidate must be presented before the examiners. 

Those, however, who only wish to obtain the qualifications to 
teach in a normal or Real school, may do so by passing the peda- 
gogical examination at the University of Leipzig.^^ The examin- 
ing commission is appointed by the Minister of Culture and 
Education. The subjects of the examination are, with the excep- 
tion that Greek and the elements of philosophy are not included, 
the same as in the examination for candidates for the higher 
schools. Only two theses are demanded, one of which must be 
on some pedagogical subject. The model lesson may at the discre- 
tion of the examiners be presented in an elementary or higher 
school or in both. The examination in the subjects which the 
candidate hopes to teach is not of such a wide scope as in the ex- 
amination for the teachers in the higher schools. 

All candidates irrespective of the examination which they have 
passed must serve a year's probation in a school to which they 
have been assigned by the Ministry. During this year they are 
not expected to give more than six hours' instruction during the 
week.^° 

Until definitely appointed the salaries^^ of normal school in- 
structors range from 1200-2100 M. ($300-520) per year besides 
a house, heat and light and the expectation of a pension. The 
permanently appointed teachers receive from 2400-6000 M. ($600- 
i50o)per year. The directors' salaries begin at 6000 M. ($1500) 
and rise to 6600 M. ($1650) per year. A scale of compensation for 

^*Ibid., pp. 498-522. 

"Ibid., pp. 524-536. 

'oibid., p. 37. . ^ 

«Ibid., pp. 585-6. 



The Normal Schools 55 

rent^2 was drawn up in 1902 for the civil servants of Saxony and 
the normal school instructors come under its provisions. In each 
school-building provision is made for housing the director and one 
assistant instructor, who has charge of the students after school 
hours. 

As in Prussia there is a distinction into ordinary and chief as- 
sistants. The distinction in salary, however, does not prevail. 
Complaints are heard here also that the older men are passed over 
in favor of younger men with academic training in the award of 
the title of chief assistant (Oberlehrer). There may be several 
instructors in each school with this title. One of these is desig- 
nated as the first chief assistant, and in case of need he repre- 
sents the director. Another title given to instructors in normal 
as well as other higher schools is that of "Professor," granted only 
to those who have completed a long and meritorious period of 
service. 

A few points of detail may be mentioned in which the adminis- 
tration of a Saxon normal school differs from the Prussian. Each 
class is assigned to one instructor who has charge of that group 
for a whole year. Of course the numbers necessitate some ar- 
rangement by which the pupils may feel that there is one instruc- 
tor in particular whom they may consult, and to whom they are 
responsible for their work and conduct during the year. Not 
only are the pupils under the charge of one instructor, but cases 
of difficulty may be brought to the notice of the faculty at the 
meetings which must be held at least once a month to discuss the 
affairs of the school. In the matter of punishments for refractory 
pupils may be mentioned a survival of the punishment cell, which 
is not infrequently used. There is the same feeling as in Prussia 
that for purposes of discipline the small town is the best location 
for a normal school. The oldest Saxon normal school is about to 
be removed from the capital to a suburb. 

Within the last few years there has been a rapid increase in 
the number of normal schools. At first these were called for by 
the dearth of teachers and were begun in the form of extra classes 
attached to existing normal schools at that time. As soon as 
buildings were put up to accommodate the new school, these extra 
classes were removed and formed the nucleus of an additional 



s^Ibid., pp. 586-590. 



56 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

normal school. Although the supply of teachers has become 
normal recently, the extra courses were retained and still further 
additions to the number of normal schools are contemplated, in 
order to supply sufficient teachers to reduce the number of pupils 
in a class of the elementary schools of forty. 

In Bavaria the normal schools have only a two years' course. 
Of the twelve normal schools all are boarding-schools. The pupils 
pay only for their food. Everything else is provided by the insti- 
tution and support is given to the poorer boys. Generally the 
faculty consists of the director and two instructors, but these may 
be assisted by an assistant instructor or teachers who do not give 
their full time to the normal school. The director is appointed by 
the King with the approval of the Bishop of the diocese in which 
the school is located. If the director is not in holy orders, then 
the first instructor must be. He holds the title of "Prefect." 
Both instructors are appointed by the King, and where the direc- 
tor is in orders the instructors are selected from able elementary 
school teachers. In addition to a free house or the compensation 
for rent and the right to a pension the salaries of normal school 
instructors are as follows : The directors receive from 3720-4800 
M. ($930-1200) per year. The other instructors receive from 
2280-3360 M. ($570-840) per year. Where necessary the min- 
istry may sanction the appointment of one or two assistant in- 
structors at a salary of from 1500- 1860 M. ($375-465) at the end 
of six years' service.^^ 

No other qualifications are demanded from candidates for ser- 
vice in the normal schools than that they should have passed the 
second examination for permanent appointment in elementary 
schools. In 1900 the Ministry for education instituted a course 
for normal school instructors in mathematics and physics, and in 
1901 in chemistry and mineralogy.^* Both courses are held in 
Munich. Since the normal school course proper only extends over 
two years, the assistance of able elementary school teachers is 
employed for the training of candidates in the practical work of 
the school. On this part of Bavarian system more will be said 
later. 



^^Englmann, Handbuch des bayerischen Volksschulrechts, pp. 161-164, 
«*Lexis, Vol. Ill, p. 306. 



The Normal Schools 57 

Except for the fact that pupils are under the disciplinary author- 
ity of the normal school throughout the year, including vacations, 
the regulations for the internal working of the schools are similar 
to those found in the two other states, which have already been 
dealt with. With reference to the conduct of the pupils during 
the vacations,^^ the instructors at their discretion may ask a pupil 
to bring a certificate from the school authorities of the district 
where they spent the period. 

^^Englmann, p. 175. 



CHAPTER V 

THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. ACADEMIC 

SUBJECTS 

The normal schools of Prussia and Bavaria are in the majority 
of cases institutions distinct from the preparatory departments. 
Although the two institutions nominally form a unit, the prac- 
tice of imposing an entrance examination on candidates for the 
normal schools has survived. In Prussia, however, the leaving ex- 
amination of a state preparatory department is recognized as an 
entrance qualification, while candidates who have had any other 
preparation must present themselves at the normal schools for 
examination. The two examinations, whether the final in a state 
preparatory department or entrance, are essentially the same, the 
only difference being in the constitution of the examining board. 
In the former the examiners consist of the instructors of the de- 
partment,^ a representative of the provincial school board and a 
director of a normal school of the province. The examining 
board in the latter case^ includes the members of the normal school 
at which the examination is held, and a representative of the 
provincial school board. Entrance examinations are held once a 
year and only as many candidates as there is room for in the nor- 
mal school are declared to have passed, although reports of the 
work of all candidates may be obtained by directors of other nor- 
mal schools on application. Candidates must be between the ages 
of 17 and 24. Their application forms must be accompanied by 
certificates of baptism, vaccination and health, and a declaration 
of the parent or guardian of ability to maintain the candidate 
during his stay at the normal school. The only expense is for 
board, all else being provided, while the state, as was pointed out 
earlier, gives support in many cases. The examination is both 

^Bremen, pp. 241-243. 

*Ibid., pp. 256-259. - , 

58 



The Normal School Curriculum 59 

written and oral. The written test consists of an essay and ques- 
tions on subjects of the preparatory department. Candidates who 
do unsatisfactory work in the written test may be excluded from 
the oral. All candidates must reach a satisfactory standard in re- 
ligion, language, arithmetic, geometry, history, music and real 
subjects. Failure in any of these subjects serves to exclude the 
candidate. Tests are also given in a modern language, drawing 
and gymnastics. The greatest stress, however, is laid on religion, 
the mother-tongue and arithmetic. In the first of these subjects 
candidates are expected to know the language, history, moral and 
religious content of the whole Bible with a special knowledge of 
certain parts, the catechism and some twenty hymns. In German 
candidates are expected to have a knowledge of grammar, spell- 
ing and expressive reading, and must be able to recite a number of 
poems. Accuracy and facility in mental arithmetic and blackboard 
work in the most important arithmetical operations are demanded. 
Exceptionally high standards are set, and the marking is unneces- 
sarily severe. The ordeal of the oral examination is very trying. 
Added to the social importance which is attached to examinations 
in Germany, and the natural nervousness of the candidates, the 
tone of a large number of examiners is not calculated to set the 
candidates at their ease or to contribute to any genuine test of real 
merit. Hence it is not surprising if at the oral tests candidates 
stumble over the simplest grammatical rules, or stammer through 
poems which they have repeated frequently in the elementary and 
preparatory schools. But a candidate must be endowed with a 
very minimum of ability to be rejected. 

On passing the examination candidates must submit to an ex- 
amination at the hands of the medical officer of the normal school. 
Another requirement before all the qualifications for entrance are 
complete is a signed declaration {Revers) of the candidate to re- 
turn all sums paid to him for support during his stay in the nor- 
mal school, and a fixed amount for the expenses of tuition, in the 
event of his leaving the normal school through ill-health or at the 
request of the authorities in the case of poor work, or in the event 
of refusing any appointment offered to him in the public school 
service by the provincial or central authorities. By this means 
a guarantee is obtained for a fair standard of work in the normal 
school, and for a supply of teachers at the call of the state. 



6o Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

In Bavaria^ the examinations for entrance into the normal 
schools is held for all candidates in the preparatory departments. 
The subjects of examination are the same as in Prussia with the 
same stress on arithmetic, religion and the mother-tongue. Can- 
didates who acquit themselves excellently in the written examina- 
tion are exempt from the oral. 

In Saxony the pupils are promoted into the section of the train- 
ing schools which correspond to the Prussian normal schools in 
the ordinary course by passing the annual promotional examina- 
tion and on general satisfactory work. Provision is made for the 
entrance of pupils who have attended other schools into any part 
of the normal schools on passing an examination in the subjects 
which are prerequisite for the classes for which they seem to be 
suitable. In this way candidates are obtained from the Realschule 
and usually enter on the course of the third year. In some normal 
schools students who enter from other schools are placed in special 
classes. Thus at Annaberg there are separate classes for the 
graduates of the Realschule (Realschulabifurienten) . 

The curriculum of the normal schools forms an organic whole 
with that of the preparatory departments of whatever type they 
may be. Just as the preparatory curriculum is built up on that of 
the elementary schools, so that of the normal schools presupposes 
the curriculum of the preparatory department. Two principles 
seem to underly the work of the normal schools. The one is due 
to the requirements of the future calling of the pupils, the other 
to a recognition that the teachers of a nation must be men of cul- 
ture. On the one hand there is a tendency to limit the curriculum 
to a deeper and more intensive study of the elementary school sub- 
jects, on the other there is the danger of extending the curriculum 
not only until it becomes unwieldy but to a point where the risk 
of overburdening the pupils is great. The problem of attaining 
the happy mean is very complex and is by no means relieved by, 
the necessity of including the purely professional training in the 
curriculum. The conditions in the German normal schools hardly 
contribute to a solution of the difficulty. The burden in all the 
normal schools seems far greater than it should be for boys in the 
adolescent period. The question, however, has formed the subject 
of discussion for some time. The most valuable contribution has 



'Englmann, pp. i66 ff. 



The Normal School Curriculum 6i 

been that of Dr. R. Seyfert, who in his "Vorschlage zur Reform 
der Lehrerbildung "* has made some happy suggestions, which are 
perhaps of too radical a character to meet with acceptance in Ger- 
many. His proposal in the main is that the training of the teacher 
shall be extended to seven years. The first five years of this 
course should be devoted entirely to academic instruction, and the 
last two to the purely professional work and specialization in one 
or two of the academic subjects. The objection that if such a 
course were adopted the academic training could be satisfactorily 
given in any of the existing secondary schools, he meets with the 
argument that the training of the teacher requires an ideal different 
from that which prevails in the other schools. Leaving the de- 
tails of Seyfert's proposals on one side, he has undoubtedly suc- 
ceeded in dealing with a problem of the normal schools which is 
all-important. 

The Prussian Regulations of 1901 met with the approval of the 
teachers on the ground that at last the academic and professional 
work were kept distinct. Until that date the underlying principle 
had been that the work of the elementary schools had the first claim 
on the attention of the pupils. Accordingly considerable emphasis 
was placed on the subjects of the elementary schools to the extent 
that the regulations provided that the methods of the elementary 
school should be employed in the class-room of the normal school. 
But while the latest regulations for normal schools have enriched 
the curriculum and separated the academic from the professional 
work, the separation has not been made in time, with the result 
that both are carried side by side. At the same time in order to 
relieve the pupils of the necessary burden which was imposed, 
some of the subjects, as mathematics, geography and nature 
study, were dropped from the course of the final year. How far 
this step succeeded in preventing the danger of overburdening 
may be seen from the time-table,^ which is an adequate plea for a 
more strictly defined separation between academic and professional 
studies. The Saxon system is similar to that of Prussia in re- 
taining the professional subjects for three years side by side with 
the academic. In Bavaria the theory and principles of education 
are taught in the two years of the course, while the practice work 
is done after candidates leave the normal school. 



^Leipzig, 1905. 
*See appendix. 



62 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

The curriculum of the normal schools of Prussia is fully pre- 
scribed in the " Course of study and suggestions for its opera- 
tion " {Lehrpl'dne fur Prdparandenanstalten und Lehrersemina/re, 
sowie methodische Anweisungen su beiden Lehr plane vom i Juli 
ipoi). The regulations received the approval and praise of 
teachers for their liberal tendencies, for their emphasis on the cul- 
tural aim and for their contribution to enrichment of the curricu- 
lum. And indeed the regulations merit all that can be said in their 
praise. While it would be impossible to disagree with the lauda- 
tory estimate contained in a book like that of Gerstenhauer {Zur 
Wiirdigung der Lehrpl'dne, etc.),* it is to be deplored that the 
practice of the normal schools does not correspond with the 
theoretical prescriptions. The force of thirty years' tradition 
established under the Regulations of 1872 has not been able to 
spend itself in the nine years during which the new regulations 
have been in operation. It will require at least a generation of 
teachers with different preparation to undo the evil effects of in- 
breeding and tradition, and to introduce the spirit of the new 
regulations. 

The necessity of repetition will be avoided if before proceeding 
with the scope of the subjects of the curriculum, some prefatory 
remarks are made here on the method employed in the class- 
rooms. Generalizations are always dangerous but the account 
here submitted seems to be based on sufficient observation to war- 
rant the statement. While it is recognized that the subject-matter 
must involve its own method, there is no evidence that this theory 
is put into practice in the German schools. It follows almost as a 
corollary of this that there is no attempt to deal with the psychol- 
ogy of a subject, that is, to interpret the experience for which a 
subject stands from the genetic standpoint, or from the point of 
view of one who realizes the experience. Each branch of the cur- 
riculum is regarded as so much information which the pupils 
must absorb. Great as is the theoretical opposition to the method 
of drilling or drumming in (einpauken) a subject, this is the 
method which is only too frequently to be observed in the Prussian 
normal schools. There is a wearisome similarity in the presenta- 
tion of the different subjects of the curriculum. Every lesson be- 
gins with a short review, as no doubt it should, but there is too 

•Gerstenhauer, Zur W{irdigung der Lehrplane, etc. (Breslau, 1906.) 



The Normal School Curriculum 63 

much insistence on accurate verbal repetition and reproduction of 
the instructor's statement at the previous lesson. The remainder 
of the lesson consists not of development by an interchange of 
thought and activity between the instructor 'and the class, but of 
brief lectures by the instructor, followed by questions on each sec- 
tion and then more reproduction by the class. For a pupil to ask 
a question is a rare procedure to be attempted only with an in- 
dulgent instructor. Frequently the reproductions of die brief 
lectures are made in response to a comm^and to "hold forth" 
(vortragen) on what has already been done and not to answer 
some question and, when one pupil has finished, the next is re- 
quested to continue {fortsetzen) where he left off. The pupil who 
is reciting monopolizes the whole of the instructor's attention. So 
well does the method here described cultivate the secondary atten- 
tion, that a pupil who is obviously inattentive can rise to his feet, 
when called upon, and continue. The effect of this method, which 
will easily be recognized as a type of Herbartianism with the 
good points omitted, is that the students employ it in the practice- 
teaching, even to the extent of reproducing in the afternoon a 
lesson which they had themselves learned in the morning. 

The pupils are not permitted to take notes of the lectures in 
most cases, and the text-books which are employed are intended 
to supplement the class-work. But the insistence on accurate 
reproduction is so strong, that means are found of taking notes 
somehow. In one school where an instructor carries the method 
so far that he scolds if a conjunction is omitted, the treasured 
property of one class consists of surreptitious notes on psychology 
which show that the instructor has not varied one word within 
seven years. As another illustration of the prevaiHng system the 
advice of an instructor to a graduating class on how to prepare 
for the examination in pedagogy in the Second Teachers Examina- 
tion may be mentioned. He recommended the selection of a good 
text-book and then the learning of each new chapter of the book 
was to be accompanied by a repetition of all that had preceded it. 

One feature of class-room procedure cannot be too highly 
recommended. Every instructor, no matter what his subject may 
be, insists on careful expression and accentuation. No occasion 
is omitted to remind the pupils that "speech is the most important 
instrument of the teacher," that "speech is the teacher's tool," and 
that "careful attention must be given to expression." 



64 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

If the function of education in Germany is to produce "the God- 
fearing, patriotic, self-supporting citizen," the aim of the normal 
schools is to produce the teachers to carry out these ideals. The 
official "Course of study and suggestions" emphasize the ethical 
and character-building elements and the training for loyalty and 
patriotism. At the same time the emphasis which is laid on these 
ideals for the normal schools is avowedly with a view to the effi- 
ciency of the teacher in the elementary schools. The teacher is 
not merely to impart information tO' the youth of the country but 
to serve as an example of reverence and patriotism. Hence 
greater stress is put in the normal schools on those subjects which 
are regarded as fundamental for the elementary schools. The aim 
of the elementary school is declared to be the "religious, moral and 
national training, and knowledge and ability necessary for citizen- 
ship."'' Accordingly an important place is assigned to religion, 
the mother-tongue, and mathematics, while the other subjects are 
only treated in their elements. The pupil who leaves the elemen- 
tary school at the age of fourteen is expected to have a good 
knowledge of the story of the Bible and a special knowledge of the 
more important parts which are fundamental to the Christian 
faith, some acquaintance with the history of the church, the 
ability to recite some simple prayers and a number of hymns. In 
the mother tongue he will be expected to read with intelligence 
and expression, to spell, to have sufficient command of the lan- 
guage to express himself intelligently, and to have received an 
introduction to the best that there is in the literature of his nation. 
The national sense is to be quickened and to find its expression in 
an intense loyalty to the reigning house, as the embodiment of 
national greatness. In arithmetic it is expected that on leaving 
the elementary school a pupil will have acquired faciHty in ac- 
curate use of figures, including fractions, decimals, and the 
ordinary numerical processes which enter into daily life. A little 
geography, also with a national emphasis, drawing and some 
nature study will also be included in the training received in the 
elementary school. 

The fundamentals of the elementary school as here described 
form the framework around which the curriculum of the normal 



^Stetzner, Das Offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands, p. 9 (Leipzig, 
1901). 



The Normal School Curriculum 65 

school is built up. The demands of the elementary school enter 
more largely into the work of the normal schools than the impor- 
tance of raising the intellectual level of the teaching profession.^ 

In religious instruction the scope is the same as in the secon- 
dary schools.^ Three hours a week are given to the subject in 
the normal schools, as against two in the gymnasium. The nor- 
mal school pupils cover much the same ground as in the elemen- 
tary schools with a more intensive treatment and a more com- 
plete study of the history of the church. The present constitu- 
tion of the evangelical church and the regulations for church ser- 
vices are added. There is a tendency to sacrifice the spiritual side 
to the informational. There appears to be very little disposition 
to question either the need or the extent of religious instruction in 
the normal schools, although voices are beginning to be raised 
here and there against the amount which is memorized. 

There is a strong resemblance between the courses: in German 
in the gymnasium^^ and the normal school. The same purpose 
underlies both, to give the pupils ability in the use of the language, 
an acquaintance with the masterpieces of literature and literary 
history, and a stronger feeling of patriotism. Instruction in 
grammar has been completed in the preparatory department and is 
only reviewed as occasion dem'ands. Some attention is given to 
phonetics in order to enable the future teachers to cope with 
dialectical peculiarities. Good composition, written and oral, is 
insisted upon by all instructors, and in addition to regular class 
exeicises two essays are usually written each month on a subject 
connected with the curriculum. The readings in literature of the 
third year would compare with those of Unterprima in extent. In 
a'ddition to a wide selection of poetry six dramatical works, in- 
cluding a play of Shakespere, are prescribed for the three years. 
History of German literature is taught in connection with the 
readings of the class, supplemented by biographical sketches of 
important writers. To the class readings must be added private 
readings on which tests are given. In the teaching of literature 
too much attention is paid to form and content and too little to 
literary appreciation and judgment. The method of approach in 



*For the curriculum see Schoppa, pp. 82-126. ';' 

"Consult Russell, German Higher Schools, Ch. XI.-' 
»«Ibid., Ch. XII. 



66 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

the treatment of poems is to analyze and break them up into sec- 
tions (Zergliederung), rarely to read them through as a whole. 
In dealing with dramatic works no attempt is made to realize 
them through action, although considerable attention is paid to 
the plot and in some cases to the psychological development of 
character. In view of the rapid inroads made by writings of the 
type of the ''dime novel" {S chundliteratur) , and in passing it 
may be said that many are translations of American detective and 
wild West stories, the pupils before leaving the normal schools 
are expected to obtain a knowledge of good popular and children's 
literature. 

On the teaching of modern languages nothing need be added to 
what has already been said on the subject in preparatory depart- 
ments. No useful purpose is served by the retention of the les- 
sons as at present given. There is little interest either on the 
part of teacher or taught. The aim of the course in a modern lan- 
guage, which may be French or English, is ability to read easy 
pieces and familiarity with the grammar and syntax. 

The teaching of history is a good illustration of the emphasis 
which is placed on one section of the "Methodical Suggestions" 
on the subject to the neglect of the rest. While these recommend 
that attention should be paid to historical criticism and the tracing 
of cause and effect together with the dependence of the present on 
the past, there is a strong tendency in the class-room to insist on 
a knowledge of dates and facts. The pupils are not encouraged 
to exercise independent judgment but to know the number of 
pages in the textbook which has been assigned. The greatest 
importance is naturally attached to the study of Prussian and then 
of German history. General European history is only introduced 
so far as it is required to illustrate the German, As the educators 
of the future citizens of the country the pupils in the normal 
schools are taught to understand the development and relations to 
each other of the different classes of society, and above all the 
services of the reigning house for the welfare of the people, for the 
Prussian schoolmaster is not only to be the teacher of youth but 
to act as a political bulwark against that evil which seems to the 
German to contradict all the ideas of historical development — 
social democracy,^^ Although the use of. source material is pre- 



^^Schsppa, p. 48. 



The Normal School Curriculum 67 

scribed, this was not much in evidence, and where it was em- 
ployed, it was mainly as a picturesque supplement to the biograph- 
ical element rather than for critical investigation. One instructor, 
a university graduate and specialist in the subject, stated tha;t it 
was better not to use source material, since sufficient time could 
not be afforded for a proper study. He contented himself in the 
class-room with insisting on dates and facts {einfach die 
Tatsache). 

Of the scientific group of subjects the greatest amount of time 
is given to mathematics. Excellent instruction is given in this 
subject. The work does not resolve itself merely into the solution 
of problems, but a strong emphasis is placed on logical thorough- 
ness. In all the branches importance is attached to oral work, 
and facility in mental calculation. The problems are closely re- 
lated to the needs of commerce and industry. A close and obvious 
relationship is maintained between arithmetic and algebra. In 
geometry the scope of the subject includes a familiarity with the 
commonest formulas. An introduction is given to trigonometry 
up to the usb of logarithms and the solution of triangles. Through- 
out there is constant practice in working on the blackboard. 

While geography in the gymnasium is taught in connection 
with history, in the normal schools the scientific aspect is em- 
phasized. After a treatment of the mathematical and physical 
facts, attention is devoted to the relation of these to men's activi- 
ties. A study of the geography of the world is followed by an 
intensive treatment of German and within recent years, of the 
colonial expansion. Some practice is given in the study of map- 
drawing in books as well as on the board, though the latter is 
necessarily limited by an inadequate equipment. 

The elements of light and electricity form the scope of the 
teaching of physics, while chemistry includes the principles and 
some acquaintance with chief minerals and metals. The laboratory 
method is not as yet introduced, and instruction is in the form of 
lectures on experiments performed by the teacher. Opportunity 
is occasionally offered after school hours for students to make ex- 
periments. In the majority of the normal schools agriculture 
still forms a branch of the curriculum. The large gardens which 
are attached to most of the schools are used for practical work in 
vegetable growing and the culture of fruit-trees. Since the 



68 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

teachers in the majority of cases hold their first appointments in 
agricultural communities, this study is of great importance to 
them as leaders, and practically it is of benefit to them in the 
management of the school and their own private gardens. 

The subjects of the scientific group are brought to a conclusion 
at the end of the second year. In the last year the method of 
teaching each of them is given. 

A disproportionate amount of time is devoted to the study and 
practice of music. Although pupils without ability may be ex- 
cused from learning harmony and the organ, very few avail them- 
selves of exemption. Singing and violin playing are compulsory 
for all. While much attention is given to the formal and technical 
branches, the execution rarely attains a satisfactory standard. The 
violin, which is admittedly a difficult instrument to play, is re- 
tained as a cheap portable instrument for the use of teachers in 
giving instruction in singing in the elementary schools. The ex- 
tent of the instruction in this subject is accounted for by the neces- 
sity of preparing teachers for appointments which are connected 
with the position of organists and choirleaders. 

The teaching of drawing is generally admitted to be indebted to 
the works of American writers, such as Liberty Tadd and the 
publications of Prang. The chief emphasis is placed on practice, 
while theoretical and formal instruction is kept in the background. 
Excellent work is done in drawing from models and nature. Al- 
though the equipment as well as the class-rooms is poor> the 
teachers, who in all cases are specialists, show considerable ingen- 
uity in the collection of suitable models, and in providing their 
pupils with opportunities of sketching and painting from nature. 
While a certain amount of correlation with other subjects of the 
curriculum is required by the regulations, the teachers of draw- 
ing jealously guard against dictation on this score. The teaching 
of perspective is the only branch of this subject which receives 
much formal treatment. Owing to the limitation already men- 
tioned blackboard drawing can receive very little of the attention 
which the regulations consider desirable. 

What the English schools strive to attain through athletics, the 
German schools aim at by means of organized gymnastics. But 
while English athletics are largely a matter of individual choice, 
gymnastics in Germany are permeated with national aims and have 



The Normal School Curriculum 69 

a political tradition of almost a century behind them. Physical 
welfare, determination, endurance, self-control and the subordina- 
tion of the individual to the group are among the aims of instruc- 
tion in gymnastics. Without entering into the merits of athletics 
over against gymnastics it may be mentioned that a gradual 
change is making itself felt in the attitude of the Germans to the 
subject, and more attention is being paid to athletics. In the nor- 
mal and elementary schools gymnastic equipment still forms an 
important adjunct. So far as possible when the weather permits 
instruction is given out of doors. The students enter into the ex- 
ercises with great zest and attain a high level of agility under 
teachers who are specialists. Swimming and skating are now in- 
cluded as part of the course in gymnastics. In the class-room in- 
struction is given in elementary anatomy, the laws of health, rules 
for first aid to the injured and the part played by gymnastics in 
the history of the nation. Gymnastics as part of the normal 
school curriculum is as good an illustration as any of the other 
branches of the importance which is attached to the teacher in 
Germany in the promotion of national ideals and national wel- 
fare. 

In turning to the curriculum of the other states little need be 
added. Prussia plays such an important part in Germany that her 
leadership in educational matters is generally accepted. But al- 
though the letter of the Prussian curriculum for normal schools 
is adopted, as for example in the courses for mathematics, draw- 
ing and gymnastics, which were adopted in Saxony in 1903, the 
spirit which animates the work of the class-room is different. 
While traces of the method which has been described as character- 
istic of Prussia are still to be found in Saxony, it may be said 
that generally there is a greater interchange of activity between 
the instructors and the pupils. In general there is a better adapta- 
tion of method to the needs of pupils, who are between the ages 
of seventeen and twenty, and an absence of that method which is 
considered appropriate to the elementary schools. The result is 
seen in more scholarly work, and less of that spirit of submission 
which is only too apparent in the Prussian normal schools. One 
point of difference in the curriculum is that Latin is taught in 
place of French, which, however, has recently been made an alter- 



70 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

native. At the end of the course the pupils have a good knowledge 
of grammar and are able to translate works of ordinary difficulty 
at sight. 

Owing to the fact that the actual normal school course in 
Bavaria only extends over two years the scope of the subjects is 
consequently abridged. The same division into fundamental and 
other subjects is made as in Prussia. 



CHAPTER VI 

PROFESSIONAL SUBJECTS AND PRACTICE TEACH- 
ING 

The professional subjects, although kept distinct from the aca- 
demic, are taught concurrently with them throughout the three 
years of the course. Psychology, principles of education and 
general method form the subject of the first year's instruction, 
history of education and principles are taught in the second, and 
the third year is devoted to administration and general revision. 
Special method and practice-teaching begin in the second year. 
Instruction in these subjects is not given by specialists but by the 
teachers of the academic branches^ and very frequently by the di- 
rectors. The method of instruction is much the same as was 
described in the last chapter. An opportunity of observing the 
results of this method was afforded in one normal school, where 
the graduating class was revising immediately before the final 
examinations. The names of the pupils were written on slips of 
paper and placed together in one heap, and in another heap were 
placed a number of questions taken from the professional sub- 
jects. Two slips, one from each heap, were then drawn and the 
pupil whose name was selected had to answer the question which 
had been drawn. In no case was there any faltering, but the re- 
action was very much like that of an electric bell to the pressure 
on the button. While it cannot be denied that the pupils had a 
knowledge of their subjects, some doubt was left as to its dynamic 
value. 

Psychology is the subject which serves to introduce the pupil 
to his professional work. Although the advisability of teaching a 
subject of such difficulty to boys of seventeen may be questioned, 
it stands logically in its right place to serve as a foundation for the 
rest of the educational work. As taught at present in Prussia 
psychology is wholly analytical. Although the regulations recom- 

"Schoppa, pp. 91, 92 and pp. 103-106. 

71 



7 2 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

mend a study of child development, very little attention is paid to 
this branch, and the text-books devote not more than about two 
pages to it. The observation of children in the practice schools is 
not made a part of the work. The researches and results of 
modern psychology receive no mention. In Saxony, however, a 
new text-book has recently been introduced which embodies the 
contribution not only of German but also of American psychol- 
ogists.^ Elementary logic is included in the study of psychology. 

From psychology the transition is made to the selection of sub- 
ject-matter in the elementary school and general method. This is 
followed by the theory of education which is carried into the mid- 
dle of the second year, when the history of education is taken up. 
The chief emphasis in this subject is laid on the biographical ele- 
ment. After a very brief consideration of education down to the 
Middle Ages, an intensive study is mode of the development of the 
elementary school in Germany, with a concentration of attention 
on the state in which the school is situated. While the educational 
aspect of the Renaissance and the humanists is treated in brief 
outline, the effect of the Reformation on the educational develop- 
ment of the country is dealt with at some length. After a de- 
tailed account of Luther's work the educational ordinances are 
discussed. The great educators are treated biographically and 
stress is laid on a knowledge of dates connected with them. The 
text-books give selections from the most important educational 
writings, and the pupils are expected to consult fuller works on 
the sources. The feature in the instruction of the history of edu- 
cation which can best be approved is the study of the development 
of the schools in which the future work of the normal school pupils 
is to be centered. It may be that there is an ulterior motive in 
placing some emphasis on this part of the work in order to bring 
into the foreground the part played by the church and the reigning 
house, but it is undoubtedly an important section of the subject. 
Here again the regulations are in advance of the practice, for the 
excellent suggestion that attention should be paid to the relation 
of educational thought and institutions to the culture of the period 
is not brought out in the class-room. 

The final year of the course is spent in revising psychology, his- 
tory and principles, and in the study of school administration and 

'StOssner, Padagogische Psychologic (Leipzig, 1909). 



Professional Subjects and Practice Teaching 73 

hygiene. In administration the future teacher is made acquainted 
with the most important regulations in school matters not only of 
the whole state but of the district in which the normal school is 
situated. While all the best known principles of school hygiene 
form part of the instruction in this year, the divorce between 
practice and precept as regards ventilation, equipment and sani- 
tary arrangements within the normal schools themselves is so 
great, that the course must leave much to the imagination of the 
pupils. 

Instruction in method begins in the second year, when it is 
taught indirectly in connection with the model lessons presented 
by the instructors, and the practice lessons given by the pupils. 
One period in each week is set aside during the first part of the 
year in religion, German, and mathematics, and later in other 
branches for this practice work. Each instructor has charge of 
the subjects which he teaches in the ordinary course. Before the 
lesson is presented the instructor discusses the method which will 
be applied. Several of the pupils are then appointed to write out 
the lesson-plan and be prepared to present it before a class from 
the practice-school. The actual lesson may be given either by the 
instructor, one pupil, or several in turn. Each pupil must have an 
opportunity of preparing for two lessons in a week. After the les- 
son, at which the whole class is present, there is a discussion, if 
that can be called a discussion where the instructor alone carries 
on the criticism. 

In the final year special method is taught for one hour each 
week in each of the branches of the curriculum. This work is 
given by the instructors in connection with the academic courses 
for which they are responsible. In Saxony, however, this practice 
is not carried out, so that there is a further divorce between sub- 
ject-matter and method than in Prussia. To this is added, as will 
be pointed out later, the fact that the critic teacher in the practice- 
school may be a different person again from either the subject 
teacher or the instructor in method. The courses deal with the 
special method of each subject which is taught in the elementary 
school and the different applications according to the grades. A 
more significant fact is that the history of the method of each sub- 
ject forms part of the course. Valuable studies in this field were 
made under the direction of K. Kehr, himself for a long time the 
director of a normal school. But the fact that the different 



74 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

methods are not brought to a critical discussion between the in- 
structor and the class detracts somewhat from the value of the 
study. Frequent opportunities are taken by the teachers to illus- 
trate their lectures by model lessons in the practice-school. 

A practice-school is attached to every normal school in the three 
states which are under discussion. In Prussia^ these schools vary 
throughout the state. The regulations prescribe a school with 
three classes in addition to the ungraded school. While these are 
the types most commonly found, some schools have five classes, 
others may be intermediate schools where French is taught, as at 
Berlin. Each class may contain two grades throughout, or the 
two highest classes may each contain only one grade. Further the 
practice-schools are open to both boys and girls. The schools are 
part of the elernentary school system in the districts where they are 
located, but differ from other schools in being under the direct 
control of the director of the normal school and so under the 
authority of the provincial school boards and not of the county 
authorities. A similar practice holds in Saxony.* Such freedom 
is essential since the normal school faculty must have power to 
make such arrangements as they regard most beneficial. But 
while the schools are under the control of the normal schools, the 
local communities must pay for the upkeep of the schools such 
expenses as they would have to disburse to maintain a school. The 
pupils are readily obtained for the graded schools, and in many 
cases parents prefer to send their children to such schools. The 
practice as to fees varies ; none are charged in Prussia usually, 
while in Saxony from five to eight marks a month may be charged. 
Nominally the practice-school should be representative of the best 
school in the district, and while many are, some suffer from a lack 
of equipment, which one teacher justified on the ground that it 
was better for the teachers in practice to have inadequate material 
as a preparation for the country schools. In Prussia the practice- 
schools do not have class teachers ; the whole of the instruction is 
given by the student teachers. But in the practice-schools of 
Saxony there is a critic teacher for each class with the rank of a 
normal school instructor. The difference between the two systems 
depends somewhat on the difference in the matter of fees, but more 



^Bremen, p. 248; Schoppa, p. 77. 
^Kretzschmar, J. F., p. 88 and p. 142. 



Professional Subjects and Practice Teaching 75 

perhaps on the difference in the importance attached to the prac- 
tice work. Under both systems the practice-schools are for ad- 
ministrative purposes and for the arrangement of the students' 
work under the charge of a member of the normal faculty 
(Ordinarius) . No additional salary is paid for what is frequently 
an additional burden. 

The most noteworthy feature in the practice-schools of Prussia 
is the ungraded school {Einklassige Schule), which is usually 
divided into four sections. This type of school reproduces the 
conditions of the country and rural schools and is always under 
the charge of only one student teacher. For these schools there 
is sometimes a difficulty in obtaining pupils. In some cases they 
are drawn from children of the very poor by the attraction of free 
books and presents of clothing once a year. In one school the dif- 
ficulty was overcome by reserving this class for children from bet- 
ter families, with the result that it was overcrowded. If only the 
curriculum were adapted for children of rural districts, little could 
be left to be desired. The subjects of the curriculum, however, 
only differ from those of the fully graded school in extent but not 
in character. 

There is a difference in the aims which underly the practice 
work of Prussia on the one hand, and Saxony and Bavaria on the 
other. While in Prussia the young teacher is generally appointed 
to the sole charge of a school, in Saxony he is always subordi- 
nated to an older teacher, and in Bavaria the major part of the 
practice is done in the regular schools under the supervision of a 
district principal at the end of the two years' course in the normal 
schools. Hence in Prussia the graduate of a normal school must 
obtain greater facility in practical work than in the other states 
where the practice partakes more of the character of observation, 
and is confined to isolated lessons. From four to six hours a 
week are prescribed by the regulations for practice work for each 
student in the Prussian normal schools ; actually from five to eight 
hours are found as a rule. Every student is expected during the 
year of practice to teach religion, German, and arithmetic, and at 
least one other subject, usually history, and to become familiar 
with each grade. Generally a good student has opportunities of 
teaching all the subjects of the curriculum. Each student teaches 
a subject which is assigned to him for a third or a quarter of a 
year, the practice varying in different schools. The lessons are 



76 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

prepared under the charge of the instructors of the respective sub- 
jects. Lesson notes are written out in full and submitted to the 
instructor in charge, who makes the necessary alterations and 
criticisms. All the lesson-plans are drawn up in accordance with 
the formal steps, either the Herbartian steps or the modifications 
of Rein or Dorpfeld. The practice teaching is generally satis- 
factory, although there is a tendency to monotony and sameness of 
presentation, and a lack of originality or initiative. The students 
seem to direct their attentions more than necessary to the bright 
pupils. The supervision of the practice work is in the hands of 
the instructors according to the subjects which they teach in die 
normal school. Thus the same instructor is responsible not only 
for the teaching of the subject-matter, but of method and the stu- 
dents' practice. in that subject. In this way unity is maintained. 
On the other hand the supervision is in danger of being superficial, 
when the supervisor must look into each of the five to eight rooms 
of the practice-school during one period. The principle of super- 
vision which is most noticeable is to be sparing in the distribution 
of praise and, if the situation demands it, to criticise at once with- 
out regard to the presence of the class. Not infrequently the 
supervisors, instead of observing the progress of the student- 
teacher, take the class into their own hands as soon as they enter 
the room. The reason which is given for the sharp and immediate 
criticisms is that, unless they are made on the spot, the supervisors 
may forget, since no other opportunities for interviews can be 
provided, as may be seen from the time-table. 

In addition to teaching the students also visit and observe each 
others' practice. The order of observation is usually so arranged 
that a student visits in the class and subject which he is next to 
take up himself. When a change of classes and subjects takes 
place, the students present a lesson in the class which they are 
about to leave before the whole faculty and the senior class. The 
theme of the lesson is set by the director. 

Once a week the Ordinarius holds a class to discuss the work of 
the practice-school. Two of the students who have observed read 
very short reports on the practice-teaching, which generally deal 
with the externalities rather than contain criticisms of real work. 
The instructor then discusses in a general. way the discipline and 
administration of the school, inquires whether tiie class diaries are 
kept up to date, deals with questions of school-room hygiene, the 



Professional Subjects and Practice Teaching 77 

care of the voice, the proper seating of the pupils and any other 
matters which may have attracted his attention during the past 
week. In a few minutes he mentions some criticisms made by the 
other supervisors on the practice-teaching. 

It is difficult to characterize the system of practice-teaching in 
the Prussian normal schools. In so far as the students aim to put 
into practice not only what they have learned on method in the 
class-room and strive to carry out a lesson in the same way as they 
have seen their instructors teach, the system may be called appren- 
ticeship training.^ On the other hand since the supervisors have 
so little time to spend in the class-rooms of the practice-school, 
there is an element of the laboratory system, if the students were 
only encouraged to use their own resources and initiative. But 
while not expected to be finished teachers on leaving the normal 
schools, the students are supposed to be sufficiently advanced to 
take the sole charge of an ungraded school. 

Saxony and Bavaria offer a contrast to the Prussian system. 
The fact that the unity between theory and practice is maintained 
with some difficulty in Saxony has already been mentioned. But 
less time is also given to practice-teaching. This may be due to 
the fact that the pupils in the practice-school pay fees, and that the 
graduating students are not appointed to independent positions, 
so that their training under supervision practically continues for 
several years after leaving the normal school. Very little impor- 
tance is attached in the leaving examination to the practice-lesson. 
Introduction into the work of the practice-school begins in the 
first year of the normal school proper, when the students observe 
model lessons. In the last two years four hours a week are de- 
voted to practice work or observation in the school. The subjects 
of instruction are not assigned for any length of time as in Prus- 
sia, but several students may prepare to teach during part of a 
period. The classes are divided into groups of six and assigned 
to the charge of the critic teachers, who are always present. The 
model lessons are followed by a brief statement from the critic 
teacher of the essential points of the lesson, the lessons of the stu- 
dents are subjected to the criticisms of the teacher at the conclu- 
sion of the lesson. There is no interruption on the part of the 



*See Dewey, The Relation of Theory and Practice in the Education 
of Teachers. 



78 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

critic-teacher during the presentation of a lesson by a student. 
Thus the Saxon system differs from the Prussian in being ex- 
tensive, with an emphasis on observation of good teaching rather 
than practice. 

The energy of the students and instructors in the last few 
months of the final year is devoted to preparation for the leaving 
examination, (Entlassungspriifung), which also serves as the 
first teachers examination. The examination is conducted with all 
formality by a board consisting of the members of the faculty, a 
commissioner who represents the provincial school board, and a 
representative of the county authority in which the school is lo- 
cated. The denominations are allowed to send representatives to 
the examination in religion, and they have the power to refuse to 
pass a candidate who is deficient in this subject. Candidates for 
the teaching profession who have not been trained in a normal 
school may be examined at the same time, but such cases are very 
rare. All candidates must present the written work of the year 
preceding the examination. As is the case with all examinations, 
there is a division into oral and written parts. The written exami- 
nation consists of the following subjects : (i) An essay on a sub- 
ject from pedagogy or German literature. (2) and (3) Short 
essays on religious and historical topics. (4) Translation from a 
foreign language. (5) The composition of a choral piece of music 
by those who take the examination in organ-playing and harmony. 
(6) Written notes for a lesson set by the examiners within a sub- 
ject selected by the candidates themselves.® 

In the oral examination candidates are tested in pedagogy, 
method, religion, German, history, and a foreign language. Those 
candidates who were conditioned at the end of their second year 
in mathematics, natural science and geography may now be ex- 
amined in these subjects. All candidates must present a lesson in 
the presence of the examiners. Deficiency in one subject may be 
annulled by good work in others, but a satisfactory standard must 
be reached in pedagogy, religion, German and history. On the 
other hand candidates who have shown particular brilliance in the 
written work may be excused from the oral examination. Four 
grades are given on the examination, "very good," "good," "satis- 
factory," and "unsatisfactory." The successful candidates receive 



'SchOppa, pp. 139-147. 



Professional Subjects and Practice Teaching 79 

certificates bearing their names and some personal facts, the nature 
of their training, reports on their industry and conduct, the de- 
cisions on their written work, and the marks which they received 
in the individual subjects and on the lesson. If a candidate pre- 
sents himself for the examination in organ-playing, the certificate 
contains some report on his ability. 

The leaving examination in the Saxon^ normal schools is 
similar to that in Prussia. In the written test questions are set in 
history, geography, and natural science, as well as arithmetic and 
geometry, a translation from Latin into German, and the plan for 
a catechism. In the practical examination candidates are tested 
in writing, drawing and gymnastics, and two lessons, one of which 
must be in religion, must be presented. 

In Bavaria the final examination at the end of the two years' 
course covers all the subjects of the curriculum. The successful 
candidates are admitted to begin their practical training. 

In all cases success in the leaving examinations entitles the can- 
didates to the privilege of serving in the army for one year as 
volunteers. This privilege together with the nature of the first 
appointment held by the elementary school teachers in the different 
states will be treated in the following chapter, 

^Kretzschmar, J. F., p. 552. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE TEACHER AT WORK 

In dealing with the German teacher two essential features stand 
out prominently. No one can serve in a public school who has not 
passed through a period of training, and no teacher is definitely 
appointed until he has served a period of probation of at least 
two years. Thus few teachers receive their permanent appoint- 
ment until they are over twenty-two years of age. That the can- 
didates for the elementary school positions are at the disposal of 
the state authorities for periods varying from three years in Sax- 
ony to five years in Prussia in return for the free tuition, which 
they had received in the normal schools, has already been referred 
to as one of the conditions of entry. The importance of this fact 
becomes clear, when it is mentioned that three years ago the Prus- 
sian government availed itself of this right to draft teachers from 
all parts of the state to the Polish province, and when the supply 
of teachers was a pressing problem at the same period, teachers 
were moved about as need arose. 

The first appointment which the candidate, on leaving the 
normal school, receives is temporary. The appointing authority 
in Prussia is the Department for Ecclesiastical and School Affairs 
of the Royal County.^ The practice varies, however. In the 
eastern parts of Prussia the teacher may be selected by the town 
councils and those patrons who have seignorial rights over schools 
from the list of qualified candidates. Where the school patron 
does not exercise the right of appointing the teacher, the county 
authority steps in, and the right may also be voluntarily sur- 
rendered. In the western provinces of the state the general prac- 
tice is for the county authority to make the appointment. 

In Saxony the first appointment of teachers is made by the Dis- 
trict Inspection Board, {Besirksschulinspektion)^ and in Bavaria 

'Bremen, p. 363; Handbuch Mr Lehrer und Lehrerinnen, pp. 6-8. 
^Seydewitz, pp. 69 and 124. 
80 



The Teacher at Work 8i 

by the District Administrative Board {Kreisregierung) } In both 
of these states the teacher who only holds a provisional appoint- 
ment bears the title of assistant teacher (Hilfslehrer) . 

In all cases the appointment of a probationer is terminable on 
notice, the only instance where this practice holds in the German 
teachers' profession. The salaries of teachers during this period 
will be given below with those of permanently appointed teachers. 

The first appointment in Prussia is in all cases held in an un- 
graded rural school, where the probationer is the only teacher. In- 
this practice lies the strength of the Prussian training system, for 
the probationary period must be regarded as a continuation of the 
training. Here for the first time the young teacher is left to his 
own resources in the exercise of a position independent of all 
assistance but that of the local and district inspector. The 
qualification of the local inspector, usually the pastor, has al- 
ready been dealt with.* As will be shown later the district in- 
spector appears so rarely that it may be said that in his first ap- 
pointment the elementary school teacher must face all the prob- 
lems of school management in the best way that he can. Very 
frequently the school is situated in a community in which the 
teacher cannot find congenial society. If the pastor is sympa- 
thetic and not inclined to claim a traditional superiority, the 
teacher's lot need not be one of difficulty. That the majority do 
not abuse their first taste of independence or submit to its temp- 
tations is due rather to the traditions of the profession than to the 
training of the normal school. And there are many teachers who, 
once they have overcome the initial difficulties, prefer to remain 
in charge of an ungraded, rural school rather than to seek pro- 
motion in a town. In the country they can, if successful, win a 
position in the community next in influence to the pastor. Local 
school traditions can be established and a friendship maintained 
with the parents on a basis of common interests. The rural 
teacher obtains an acquaintance with local conditions which can 
contribute to a solution of many of the problems which beset 
him. In such cases, and they appear to be frequent, the teaching 
profession truly becomes a calling inspired by devotion to high 
ideals. It is largely through a recognition of this that the gov- 
ernment withholds permission to the elementary school teacher to 

•Englmann, p. i8o. 
«Ch. II. 



8 2 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

proceed to the University. There is a fear that the university 
trained teacher will be unwilling to take up the duties of a rural 
school. On the other side it is argued^ with truth that so long 
as men with university training will be found to take up pastoral 
duties and the practice of medicine in a remote village, so long 
will there be found men to take charge of the schools there, pro- 
vided of course that the services are adequately recognized 
financially. And until recently the salaries have not been such 
as to keep capable teachers in the country. Nor has care been 
taken to make other conditions attractive. Frequently the 
school-house is in a poor state. Although a house is provided ^or 
the teacher, no steps are taken to insist that it is kept in a sani- 
tary condition. 

Legally the teacher of an ungraded school may have under his 
charge at one time eighty children. If this number is exceeded 
or the school-room is not large enough, the pupils may be 
divided into two sections, each attending one half day. Where 
the number of pupils exceeds a hundred, a decree recommends 
the employment of a second teacher. It is significant that the 
Kaiser has said that to teach a class of seventy children is "noth- 
ing but human torture." But as recently as 1908^ cases could 
be quoted where single teachers had charge of from 90 to 200 
pupils. With ths increase in salary, there will come an increase 
in the supply of teachers and a more equable distribution of the 
pupils. In consequence of these conditions the curriculum of 
the ungraded school is limited to essentials. Religion, German, 
arithmetic, drawing, singing and gymnastics together with a 
subject which goes under the name of object lessons (Realien) 
are taught. It will be recognized that the problem of the rural 
school is not faced. 

The ungraded schools are divided into three sections, lower, 
middle, and upper. With the exception of the lower section which 
receives twenty hours instruction, the rest of the school has 
thirty hours per week. In addition to the work of the school and 
such church duties as are allotted to him, the teacher during his 
first appointment must find time to prepare for the second exami- 
nation for permanent appointment. In view of the lack of train- 

^P adagogisches Jahrbuch, 1905, p. 177. 

•See the speech of Herr Tews on Lehrermangel in Bericht {iber die 
deutsche Lehrerversammlung in Dortmund, 1908. 



The Teacher at Work 2>^ 

ing in independent judgment this is no easy task for the young 
teacher. The result is that short-cut methods of preparation are 
chosen and any of the numerous cram-books which are edited 
for the purpose are used. In practical work, however, the prob- 
lems of the ungraded class-room offer good opportunities for 
making progress. The means for the further training of teachers 
will be treated in the next chapter. 

In Saxony and Bavaria the candidates for positions in ele- 
mentary schools serve the period of probation in a graded school, 
but have charge of a class. The Instructions for the Operation 
of the Elementary School Law (August 25, 1874)^ in Saxony 
expressly prescribe the appointment of assistant teachers 
(Hilfslehrer) in schools where they can avail themselves of the 
advice and guidance of older teachers. Usually not more than 
one assistant teacher may be appointed to six regular teachers.^ 
In Bavaria there are similar regulations recommending the as- 
sistant teachers to the care and supervision of the older teachers." 
The qualification for permanent appointment in an elementary 
school depends on success in the second examination. ^° which 
candidates must take within a period of two to five years after 
leaving the normal school. The period here mentioned is that 
which is allowed in Prussia. Permission to present for the ex- 
amination depends on the report of the inspector of the district 
in which the candidate has been employed. Where permission 
is refused, the reasons are given. By this means there is a 
method of eliminating the unfit or the undesirable before the ex- 
amination is reached. The examining commissions are consti- 
tuted in the same way as those which conduct the first examina- 
tions, and the examination takes place at the norm^al schools. 
So far as possible candidates are assigned to the normal schools 
where they received their training. Candidates who are not as- 
signed to their own normal schools feel that an additional diffi- 
culty has been introduced into the examination. Their first aim 
is to obtain as much information as they can about the instruc- 
tors, more particularly their weak points. There is no doubt 
that familiarity with the surroundings and an acquaintance with 

'Seydewitz, p. 196. 
*Ibid., p. 229. 
•Englmann, p. 180. 
^'Bremen, pp. 282-285, 



84 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

the idiosyncrasies of the examiners removes some of the terrors 
of the examination. And from the other side the examiner's 
knowledge of the candidates in some cases means the difference 
between a pass and failure. In many cases allowance is made for 
poor work due to nervousness or other causes because of pre- 
vious acquaintance with the candidate while in the normal 
school. The examination is in no sense a revision of the work of 
the normal school, but a test of the efficiency and the develop- 
ment of the candidate in professional power since his first ap- 
pointment. In applying for permission to be admitted to the 
examination candidates must give evidence of the professional 
writings which they have read and of the study of some special 
subject. Particular stress is laid in the examination on progress 
in theory, method and practice of education. The examination 
consists of two parts, written and oral. In the written part an 
essay on some topic from the field of pedagogy is to be done in 
four hours. Neither the quality nor quantity of these essays is 
usually of a liigh standard. Rarely are more than one or two 
sheets of foolscap handed in at the end of the period, and even in 
this short space the tendency to talk around the point is not 
avoided. On the other hand the examiners set a high standard 
and rarely does a candidate obtain the first mark. One excellent 
essay was recently marked down because the candidate had ven- 
tured to criticize a ministerial regulation. As a general rule op- 
portunity is taken to drag in irrelevant matter which smacks of 
the cram-book. The oral examination includes questions on the 
theory and practice of education, a knowledge of the psychologi- 
cal basis of method, the history of education and the contribution 
of prominent pedagogues and particularly the history of the 
Prussian elementary school. An acquaintance with the adminis- 
trative work of a school and with government regulations on 
education is demanded. Questions may be asked on the method 
of at least two of the fundamental subjects, German, religion, 
history and mathematics. Further, candidates are examined on 
the subject of which they have made a special study and which 
may be selected from any of the academic subjects of the nor- 
mal schools. The scope of the examination is completed by the 
presentation of a lesson in the practice school. The subject is 
assigned at a day's notice, but the wishes of the candidates are 
considered in the matter of the branch of the curriculum and the 



The Teacher at Work 85 

grade which is to be taught. Here again the candidates expend 
some effort in discovering details about the pupils in the practice 
schools and the location of the brighter pupils. A lesson-plan 
fully elaborated must be handed in before the lesson is given. 
The plans show a painfully exaggerated effort to work out every 
lesson, no matter what the nature of the subject may be, in con- 
formity with the five Herbartian steps. This is all the more re- 
markable because this system has generally been discarded. The 
consequence generally, in the cases which were observed, was a 
difficulty in handling the lesson wher.e the pupils did not respond 
in the expected manner. Allowing for the nervousness of the 
candidates, which was in no degree lessened by the outspoken 
criticisms and the interruptions of the examiners, the lessons did 
not reach a good standard. The number of candidates did not 
admit of sufficient time to complete any one lesson. There ap- 
peared to be considerable unfairness in the test. The formality, 
the strange pupils, the objections of the examiners to which the 
candidates were not allowed to reply and which the pupils took 
in with open ears to the extent of being able to infer what grade 
a candidate was likely to get, all contributed to the impression 
that none but the strongest and most self-possessed of the candi- 
dates could do themselves justice. And this fact was amply con- 
firmed by a comparison between the grades given by the exam- 
iners and the reports of the district inspectors. In some cases 
the candidates were allotted subjects or sections of subjects 
which they had no opportunity of teaching in an ungraded school. 
A candidate who obtained a failing mark might receive permis- 
sion to present another lesson, if the quality of his work in the 
rest of the examination justified such a course. It is in such cases 
that the previous acquaintance of the examiners with the candi- 
dates is found to be useful. On the whole, however, the reten- 
tion of this part of the examination cannot be justified. It would 
be far more just to the candidates, and more reasonable in prac- 
tice to rely on the judgment of the inspectors, provided that 
they were in a position to pay more frequent visits to the indi- 
vidual teachers than they do at present. The injustice of such 
a test as at present constituted is further emphasized by the fact 
that its result is critical for the future career of the teacher, for 
on the grade which he now obtains depend his chances of pro- 



86 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

motion into a town system with a good salary scale, as well as 
of entering one of the special courses in Berlin. 

A certificate is granted on the general result of the examina- 
tion. In the case of unsatisfactory work in the lesson, or peda- 
gogy, or two of the fundamental subjects, the certificate may be 
refused. Otherwise credit is given for good subjects to counter- 
balance unsatisfactory results in others. The possession of the 
certicate carries with it the qualification for permanent appoint- 
ment, which, however, cannot be confirmed until the candidates 
have passed through the period of military service. 

Similar provisions are found in the other states. In Saxony 
the Eligibility Examination {V/ahlfahigkeitsprufungY'^ must be 
taken three years after leaving the normal schools and in case of 
failure can only be twice repeated. .With the exception of the 
omission of the examination in French and the addition of the 
preparation of a catechetical lesson-plan the regulations are so 
much like those of Prussia that they need no further comment. 
On the result of the examination depends not only the right to a 
permanent appointment, but also permission to proceed to the 
University of Leipzig, which is given outright to those candi- 
dates who receive the first mark, "excellent," in the examination, 
and by special consent of the Minister to those candidates who 
receive the mark "quite good" (lb). 

The Appointment Examination {A stellungspriifung)'^^ in 
Bavaria differs from the above only in extent and scope, for the 
written examination includes in addition to the essay papers in 
educational theory, geography, history, arithmetic, mathe- 
matics, religion, natural science, drawing and harmony. The 
title and the first ten lines of the essay serve as a test in calig- 
raphy, while the essay and the papers on educational theory are 
also examined for spelling. The oral examination includes re- 
ligion, German, school administration and music. There is also 
a test in gymnastics. No provision is made for an examination 
in practical teaching. Candidates, however, are only admitted to 
the examination if the district school authorities report that their 
practical work and religious life are satisfactory, and if they are 
"politically blameless." Candidates who fail to pass the examina- 

^'Kretzschmar, J. F., pp. 560-569. 
"Englmann, pp. 194-196. 



The Teacher at Work 87 

tion in three attempts are excluded from the teaching profes- 
sion. 

At some period after leaving the normal school and before he 
can be confirmed in a permanent appointment, every German 
teacher must satisfy the authorities that he has performed his 
military duties. By an order of the Cabinet which came into 
force in 1900 teachers in elementary schools, who have passed 
the leaving examination of a normal school, receive the privi- 
lege of serving only for one year. This year may.be spent either 
at the expense of the state or at personal expense. In the former 
case (Einjdhrige aktive Militdrdienst) the soldier is subjected 
to the ordinary discipline of the service ; in the latter he pur- 
chases his own equipment, does not live in barracks, has some 
power of selecting his regiment, and is not subjected to the 
menial duties of military life in barracks. An active campaign 
is being carried on by teachers' associations to bring the advan- 
tages of the one-year service as a volunteer to the general notice 
of teachers, and more particularly to advise them of the cost of 
this course and to inform parents how they may prepare by in- 
surance of a boy as soon as he enters on the period of training in 
order to meet the expenses. The cost of such a year's service is 
on an average 1400 M. ($350).^^ Teachers in permanent ser- 
vice can claim their salaries during the year of military service.^* 
In 1906-1907 of the elementary school teachers in military ser- 
vice 40.26 per cent, were serving as one-year volunteers. ^^ The 
leaders among the elementary school teachers attach importance 
to an increase of those in their ranks who avail themselves of 
this privilege, which carries a certain amount of social prestige 
with it. 

Candidates for positions in elementary schools are ofificially 
recommended to perform the year of service as soon as possible 
after leaving the normal schools.^® A more usual practice seems 
to be to enter on the military duties after passing the second ex- 
amination, in order on the one hand to have an unbroken period 
of preparation for the examination and to save towards the ex- 
penses of the year of service, and on the other to enter on an ap- 

"Handbuch Mr Lehrer und Lehrerinnen, p. 90. 
^■•Ibid., p. 13. 

^^Padagogisches Jahrbuch, 1907, p. 177. 
"Bremen, p. 388. 



38 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

pointment without the necessity of later taking leave of absence 
for a year. The period of military service is regarded as an in- 
terruption of the professional career. But upon it as much as 
upon the passing of the second examination depends the perma- 
nent and definite appointment of a teacher in a German elemen- 
tary school.^'' 

The appointment of teachers in Prussia is made by the local 
authorities from the list of eligible candidates.^^ In school com- 
munities with twenty-five teachers or less the selection is made 
from a list of three candidates suggested by the county depart- 
ment. In towns the selection is made by the town authorities on 
the recommendation of the school committee. Where a school is 
under seignorial patronage, the patron has the right to select the 
candidate in consultation with the local school committee. In 
every case, however, the confirmation of the selection is made by 
the county department, which through its officials gives the 
record of the appointment to the teacher on his introduction to his 
position.^® 

Candidates for vacant school positions are obtained by adver- 
tising the vacancies, but in the cases of the better school systems 
there is no dearth of applicants. The vacancies are announced 
in the current or professional newspapers, or in the journals 
which make a special feature of this form of advertisement. In- 
formation about the candidates may be obtained by correspon- 
dence, by inviting the candidate to appear and present a lesson 
before a committee, or by visiting the candidates in the schools 
where they are located at the time.^'^ The last practice as involv- 
ing the least amount of inconvenience is recommended officially. 
In such a case the superintendent or other professional officer of 
the school system is sent to visit the candidates. Where the 
candidate is invited to appear and present a lesson, only the pro- 
fessional or semi-professional members of the school committee 
are permitted to attend. The town councillors are not permitted 
to take any part whatever. In the case of the rural schools, the 



^'Plfechke, Die stadtischen Schuldeputationen und ihr Geschaftskre'is 
p. 204. 

**Ibid., pp. 672-674. 

^*Ibid., pp. 672-674 and pp. 718-720. 

^'Ibid., pp. 174-176. 



The Teacher at Work 89 

model lesson is largely employed as a means of making the ac- 
quaintance of the candidates rather than as a professional test. 

On the power of selecting candidates only two restrictions-^ are 
placed by the higher authorities. It is not considered advisable 
to encourage a young teacher to change his positions too fre- 
quently, and the county authority has the power to refuse to 
confirm an appointment in such a case. Teachers must be en- 
couraged to stay in one place as long as possible in order to bene- 
fit to the full extent by the experience. It is felt that the practice 
of allowing teachers to change frequently might involve the 
danger of withdrawing teachers from the rural schools. To the 
same cause is due the restriction that young teachers should not 
be appointed to positions in town schools systems. In this way 
the interests of the country schools and the systems with low 
salary scales are safeguarded. The denominational character of 
the position is, of course, to be taken into consideration. 

On receiving his appointment the teacher is ceremoniously in- 
troduced to the school and his colleagues either by the district or 
the local school inspector. Considerable importance is attached 
to the ceremony of introduction. In no case will its omission be 
disregarded. It is incompatible with the position of the teacher 
and the significance of his official position in the school and the 
community to omit the ceremony .^^ At the same time he receives 
the record of his appointment (Ernennungsiirkunde or V okation) . 
This certificate of appointment may by law include or exclude^' 
certain conditions. For example higher qualifications than those 
established by law cannot be demanded. No teacher can re- 
nounce his right to a pension. Appointment for a definite time 
or upon notice cannot be made. Contributions towards pensions 
or widows' funds cannot be exacted. No teacher can be com- 
pelled to give instruction in a continuation school without re- 
muneration. But the certificate may include a condition to the 
effect that a teacher must in case of need do substitute work and 
give additional religious instruction where necessary. The ap- 
pointment is made to a school or a school system and not to a 
grade or to teach a group of subjects. 

^^Ibid., p. 177. 
'^ibid., p. 180. 
"Ibid., p. 187. 



-9© Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

Once appointed the teacher cannot be dismissed except for 
grave breach of disciphne or gross neglect of duties. In any 
case the only authority competent to deal with the teachers are 
the state officials, the local and district inspectors.^* The local 
school authorities have no direct power over the teacher what- 
ever. The inspectors have the power to warn and censure and to 
inflict a fine up to 9 M. The teacher is a servant of the state and 
local interference would be regarded as an interference with the 
rights of the state. If the teacher desires leave of absence, he is 
referred to the state officials, the inspectors, the county depart- 
ments, or the Oberprasident according to the" length of the 
period of absence which is desired. If the teacher has any com- 
plaints or any appeals to make, he does so to the same authori- 
ties. To these he is also responsible for keeping the official docu- 
ments, the class register, the reports on the scholars, a record of 
the work done, and a list of the punishments inflicted. There is 
thus the apparent anomaly of a local authority maintaining 
schools and paying, very often, the larger part of the teachers' 
salaries without power of control over the teaching body. In 
large towns the superintendent is also the district school inspec- 
tor. In smaller areas matters of difficulty can be referred by the 
local body to those who have competent authority. 

In Saxony^^ and Bavaria^® the same principle of selection of 
candidates by one body and confirmation of the appointment by 
another is found. In Saxony all vacancies must be reported to 
the District Board of Inspection, which advertises them; in 
Bavaria the appointing authority is the Kreisregierung, which 
must have the support of the church authorities where church 
services are attached to the school position. The model lesson in 
Saxony is presented before the district or local inspector or the 
school principal, and the power of selection is vested in the local 
school authority with the cooperation of the pastor. In Bavaria 
the practice of demanding the presentation of a lesson does not ap- 
pear to prevail. The selecting bodies may be either local com- 
munities, corporations, pastors, or private patrons. For appoint- 
ments in towns candidates must have obtained either the first 
or second mark in the appointments examination, and the first 

^Ibid., pp. 195-196. 
^^Seydewitz, pp. 199-204. 
**Englinann, pp. 205, 224, 226. 



The Teacher at Work 91 

mark for conduct. A curious feature in connection with appoint- 
ments in Bavaria is tiie levy of a tax of 10 per cent, on the 
value of the salary or, in the case of promotion, on the value 
of the increase in salary. In the oath of office, which is also 
administered in Prussia and Saxony, in addition to the promise 
of loyalty and proper performance of duties, teachers must un- 
dertake not to join secret societies.^'^ The ceremonious introduc- 
tion into office, which is found in Saxony,^^ is not mentioned in 
the Bavarian regulations. As in Prussia the teachers in the other 
states are subject to the disciplinary measures only of the state 
authorities, except that in Bavaria the local school authority may 
warn and censure. ^^ 

The principle which underlies the salary systems in Germany is 
very simple. The states in each case fix a legal minimum scale, 
which must be paid to all teachers, and the first care of the cen- 
tral authorities is to assist in the maintenance of this standard by 
contributing to the funds of local bodies for this purpose. In the 
poor rural communities the whole salary of a teacher is often paid 
in this way. For larger systems the state subsidy forms only a 
very small fraction of the salary schedule. The minimum scale 
established over a large area has the disadvantage that in some 
parts it may be rigidly adhered to without being commensurate 
with the cost of living there. It must always be remembered, 
however, that in addition to salary the German teacher also re- 
ceives a house or compensation for rent, proportionate to the 
local rates, and that he can look forward to a pension on his re- 
tirement, and provision for his family on his death. Comparing 
relative values and differences in purchasing power of money, the 
elementary school teacher receives a higher remuneration for his 
services than his colleagues in England, France or America. 

After an agitation for a revision of the scale of salaries the 
Prussian teachers have succeeded in procuring the passage of a 
salary law which came into effect last year {Das Lehrerhe- 
soldungsgesets vom 26 Mai, igog^?^ The great variety and dis- 



"Englmann, p. 226, 

^'Seydewitz, p. 203. 

"Englmann, p; 266. 

'"Glattfelter, Das Lehrerbesoldungsgesetz vom 26 Mai, 1909 (Dfissel- 
dorf, 1909), It should be pointed out that the first paragraph of the 
Rep. of the Com. of Ed. on the question (1909, p. 452), is not correct. 



92 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

parity in the salary scales in different parts of the state, the 
rapid increase of prices for the commodities of life, and the 
dearth of teachers were some of the compelling factors in chang- 
ing the law. 

In place of the minimum salary of 900 M. ($225) established 
by the previous salary law of 1897, the new law fixes the mini- 
mum at 1400 M. ($350) per year. The scale rises to the maxi- 
mum by nine increments. The first increment accrues after 
seven years' service and the others in periods of three years 
thereafter. The first two increments amount each to 200 M. 
($50), the next two are of the value of 250 M. ($62.50) each, 
followed by five of 200 M. Thus the maximum after thirty 
years service is 3300 M. ($825). A new feature of the law is 
that the sums paid as compensation for rent no longer depend on 
local circumstances, but are fixed once and for all according to 
the class of city to which the school is situated. The compensa- 
tion amounts to 800 M. ($200) in cities of the first class ; 650 M. 
($162.50) in cities of the second class; 540 M. ($135) in cities 
of the third class ; 450 M. ($102.50) in cities of the fourth class ; 
and 330 M. ($82.50) in cities of the fifth class. Further for pur- 
poses of the pension the rent-indemnity is included in the calcu- 
lation of the salary. In the salaries of teachers holding a pro- 
visional appointment only, and of those not over four years in 
service the minimum mentioned above may be curtailed by one- 
fifth. 

In Saxony the present salary law^^ was passed in 1908 and 
came into force at the beginning of last year. Assistant teachers 
by that law receive a commencing salary of 900 M. ($225). 
This was increased in the second year to 1000 M. ($250), and 
1 100 M. ($275) in the third year. Teachers holding a definite 
appointment have a commencing salary of 1500 M. ($375) per 
year rising by six triennial increments of 200 M. ($50) to 2700 
M. ($675) and thence by two triennial increments of 150 M. 
($37.50) to 3000 M. ($750). As distinguished from the Prus- 
sian system the expense of the increments is borne entirely by the 
state in Saxony since 1900. To the salary must also be added a 



*'Patzold, Geschichte des Volksschulweseps im KOnigreich Sachsen, 
p. 194 (Leipzig, 1908). 



The Teacher at Work 



93 



house or compensation for rent, which is included with the 
salary in calculating the amount of the pensions.®^ 

In Bavaria^^ assistant teachers receive a salary of 820 M. 
($205) per year until definitely appointed, when a minimum of 
1200 M. ($300) is paid. The increments in salary begin after five 
years' service. The first five increments, paid at varying intervals of 
five, three, two and five years, amount to 90 M. ($22.50) each, 
and are followed by four increments of 120 M. ($30) paid at 
intervals of five years. Thus at the end of forty years' service 
a teacher would be in receipt of 930 M. plus 1200 M. ($532.50), 
provided that he started at the legal minimum, which is not at all 
probable. As in Prussia and Saxony a house or compensation 
for rent is provided. 

The following table^* will give a comparative view of the 
salaries which are paid in the three states : 



Year of Life 



Salary 



Prussia Saxony Bavaria 



Twenty-fifth 
Fortieth . . . 
Forty-ninth , 
Fifty-first . . 
Fifty-second 



^333- 20 

59500 
737.80 

785-50 

785-50 



l>357-oo 
595-00 
714.00 
714.00 
714 .00 



5321.30 
499.80 
618.80 
618.80 
666.40 



To the present value of these salaries must be added the ex- 
pectation in each case of a pension, as well as of provision for 
widows and orphans. In Prussia^^ a teacher, if incapacitated for 
further work, may retire on a pension after ten years' service 
which amounts to 2o/6oths of the salary at the time of retirement. 
After the tenth year of service i/6oth is added annually to this 
sum. In no case can a pension amount to more than 45/6oths of a 
teacher's total income, but this sum accrues at the age of 65. 
Towards the payment of pensions the state contributes 700 M. 
($175). All school authorities responsible for bringing the pen- 



'^Seydewitz, pp. 73, 206. 
'^Englmann, pp. 272 311. 
^*Rept. U. S. Com. Educ., 1909, p. 453. 

'^Glattfelter, Das Lehrererbesoldungsgesetz vom 26 Mai, 1909, etc. 
pp. 103-121. 



94 Training of Elementary Sclwol Teachers in Germany 

sions up to the statutory limit must deposit the requisite fund with 
the county authority, which undertakes the charge of managing 
and distributing the fund at a small cost. 

Not only is provision made for pensioning teachers on their 
retirement from service, but since 1899 the state by law grants 
support to the widows and orphans of deceased teachers.^® A 
widow is entitled to 40 per cent, of the pension to which her hus- 
band was or would have been entitled at the time of his death. 
Such a sum, since 1907, must not be less than 300 M. ($75) nor 
more than 3500 M. ($875) per year. Children, if the mother is 
still alive, are entitled each to one-fifth of the sum paid to the 
mother; otherwise each to one-third of what their mother would 
have received. In no case, however, may the combined sum of 
the receipts of the widow and orphans be equal to the amount of 
the pension to which the deceased was entitled. The claim to 
this provision ceases on marriage of the widow or with the at- 
tainment of the eighteenth birthday by the orphans. Towards the 
widows and orphans fund the state contributes 420 M. ($105) 
for each widow, and 84 M. ($21) or 140 M. ($35) for each 
orphan, the sum depending on whether the mother is alive or not. 
The first payment of claims is made three months after the death 
of the teacher, but during this period the full amount of the de- 
ceased's pension is paid to his family {Gnadenquartal) . As in 
the case of the pension all school authorities responsible for the 
payment of support to widows and orphans must deposit the 
requisite sums with the county treasury. 

In Saxony^^ the state bears the whole cost of pensions, except 
in those cases where local authorities have made provision for 
the payment of pensions equal to the legal minimum. The scale 
is somewhat more liberal than in Prussia. The pension may 
under satisfactory circumstances be claimed after ten years of 
service, counting only those served after the twenty-fifth year. 
The amount which m.ay then be paid is thirty per cent, of the 
salary at the time of retirement. From this sum the scale rises^ 
gradually up to eighty per cent, of the salary at the end of forty 
years of service or the attainment of the sixty-fifth birthday. 
For the widows and orphans of deceased teachers there is a pro- 

"Glattfelter, pp. 137-149. 
"Kretzschmar, J. F., pp. 603-611. 



The Teacher at Work 95, 

vision for each of one-fifth of the salary last drawn. In the case 
of full orphans three-tenths of this sum is paid until the child 
reaches the age of eighteen.^** 

For Bavaria^^ it is difficult to make anything more than a gen- 
eral statement on the pension system, since unlike the other states 
no legal standard prevails. District pension bureaus {Kreis- 
pensionsanstalt) exist to which all teachers must contribute. An 
entrance fee of 24 M. ($6) is exacted, and an annual subscription 
of from one to two per cent, of the pension to which the con- 
tributor would be entitled if he retired at the time of payment. 
The state contributes 600 M. ($150) towards the pension of a 
teacher who retires before completing forty years of service, and 
640 M. ($160) per year where forty years of service have been 
completed. But the pensions are only paid to teachers so long as 
they are incapacitated from active service. If they recover and 
take a new appointment, they must again resume their contribu- 
tions to the pension fund. The scales vary very largely through- 
out the state but a minimum of 900 M. ($225) has been estab- 
lished for teachers permanently appointed. In addition to the 
district pension bureaus many of the towns have their own de- 
partments for this purpose, to which the teachers must con- 
tribute. In the same way all teachers are compelled since 1902 
to be members of a society which has for its object the support 
of the widows and orphans of teachers.*° The entrance fees and 
annual contributions vary widely, with the consequence that the 
amount of the payments to the widows and orphans shows an 
equal variation. The state, however, assures to each widow the 
annual sum of 300 M. ($75), to each full orphan 150 M. 
($37.50), and to each orphan whose mother is still living 100 M. 
($25) per year up to 16, if a girl, up to 18, if a boy. The state 
contributions are additional to the sums which may be paid 
locally. The towns have their own systems of insurance for these- 
purposes and different scales of paymients. 

In order to afford a basis of comparison for the values of the 
salaries the following table, selected from two hundred returns 



"Ibid., pp. 616-618. 
'"Englmann, pp. 352-395- 
*<>Ibid., pp. 395-436. 



96 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

by the Saxon Teachers' Association, is given. The table repre- 
sents the expenditure of five teachers :*^ 



Expenditure on: 



Young 
Unmar- 
ried 
Teacher 



Child- 
less 
Family 

Husband 



Family 

WITH 

1-2 
Child- 
ren 

Husband 
30 



3-4 
Child- 



Husband 
40 



Child- 
ren 
Grown 
Up 

Husband 
5° 



Food 

Clothing and laundry . . . 

Fre and ighting 

Taxes and savings 

Suoplies 

Help 

Health and physical wel- 
fare 

Schooling 

Educational 

Extras 



540M 
250 

60 
100 

60 

60 

150 



100 
280 



1600 



840M 

300 

100 

150 

100 

80 

160 

50 
220 



960M 
500 
100 
200 
100 
80 

160 

50 
250 



2400 



1200M 
600 
100 
200 
100 
80 

200 
200 

50 
270 



3000 



1200M 
700 
100 
200 
100 
100 

200 

600 

SO 

350 



3600 



These lived rent free. 



^'■Padagogisches Jahrbuch, 1907, p. 182. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE 

However perfect a system of training teachers previous to 
their entry into service may be, it must be recognized that the 
utmost that a normal school can be expected to do is not to pro- 
duce finished teachers but to fill the pupils with a strong profes- 
sional feeling and to inspire them with a desire to continue their 
further education. But in addition to professional spirit and per- 
sonal ambition, other stimuli must be provided and some organ- 
ization must be established to assist the teachers in their 
further training. In the following chapter the means which are 
adopted in the three states, for the training of teachers in ser- 
vice will be dealt with. A distinction must, however, be made in 
the provisions for further training according as they are formal, 
established by and under the supervision of the state, and in- 
formal, including such organizations as partake of a private 
character. 

The principle that teachers at the beginning of their careers 
require more training than that which is given in the normal 
schools has been fully recognized in Germany. It is upon this 
principle that permanent appointment in an elementary school 
follows only after a period of probation, extending from two to 
five years. The examinations for permanent appointment have 
already been dealt with in the preceding chapter. In Prussia 
there are in addition promotional examinations for appointments 
in intermediate schools (Mittelschulen) and higher girls' schools 
and as principals of elementary schools. As was pointed out in 
an earlier chapter these two examinations must also be passed in 
order to qualify for appointment in a normal school. 

The examination for teachers . in intermediate schools is open 
to elementary school teachers who have already passed the sec- 
ond examination, ministers, candidates for positions in secondary 
schools and candidates in theology. The examination, which is 

97 



98 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

both written and oral, consists of pedagogy and two subjects 
selected from the following and, so far as possible, related to 
each other: Religion, German, French, English, history, geo- 
graphy, mathematics, botany and zoology, physics and chemistry 
with mineralogy. A dissertation, for the preparation of which 
eight weeks are allowed, and the presentation of a lesson before 
the examiners complete the examination.^ 

To qualify for the position of principal of an elementary 
school with six or more classes or for any of the higher positions, 
with the exception of appointments in secondary schools, candi- 
dates must have passed the principals' examination, which may 
be taken three years after the examination for appointment in 
intermediate schools. The subjects of the examination are 
mainly concerned with the theory and practice of education and 
school management. The thesis, for which eight weeks are al- 
lowed, is on some phase of these studies. In the oral examina- 
tion questions are taken from the general field of pedagogy, 
special method, school administration and state regulations, the 
chief types of school apparatus and aids for instruction, and 
popular and child literature. Where it is sought to obtain quali- 
fications for a principalship in a school where a foreign language 
is taught, there is a further test in this language.^ 

Promotional examinations of these kinds are not found in 
Saxony or Bavaria. In the former state there is, however, a 
provision that only those who obtained not less than the second 
mark in the eligibility examination may be appointed as prin- 
cipals of schools.^ .Whether the Prussian system of promoting 
by examinations is to be recommended is at least an open ques- 
tion, although the examination system is considered to be one of 
the elements of strength in the teaching profession of that state. 
The qualities which are required in a school principal are not of 
a type which can be submitted to measurement by examination. 

The systems of inspection in the three states were mentioned 
in the second chapter. It was there pointed out that with the ex- 
ception of Saxony the inspectors are preponderatingly from the 
clerical order. Not only is it the case that the majority of the 



'SchOppa, p. 153. 
'Ibid., p. 163. 
•Seydewitz, p. 195. 



The Training of Teachers in Service 99 

inspectors are not professional teachers, but their number is at 
present inadequate to perform to any extent the function of train- 
ing teachers in service. Usually a district inspector (Kreis- 
schulinspektor) in Prussia* has two hundred teachers under him. 
They are expected to visit every school once a year, but fre- 
quently not more than one inspection in two years can be made. 
In Saxony^ only one visit in two years is expected from the dis- 
trict inspector {Bezirksschulinspektor) , while in Bavaria^ the 
district inspector is expected to pay one visit each year to tiie 
schools of his district. In every case the local inspector has op- 
portunities to visit the schools more frequently, but such visits 
are rather elements of irritation than of service to the teachers. 

Of a more formal character in the systems of training of 
teachers in service are the conferences. The most important in 
Prussia'^ and Saxony^ are conducted once a year by the district 
inspectors, which all teachers in elementary schools are obliged 
to attend. In Prussia a small remuneration is paid since 1897 to 
cover the necessary expenses incurred in coming to the meeting. 
The conferences are under the presidency of the inspectors, and 
usually include a lecture on a subject which has previously been 
assigned to one of the teachers of the district, dealing with some 
question of pedagogy or general method or other topic of current 
interest; a model lesson or a lecture on special method may also 
form the subject for such meetings. In each case a discussion 
follows. Recently the practice has grown up in Prussia of invit- 
ing the district medical officers to teachers' conferences to ad- 
dress the teachers on school hygiene, dietetics, alcoholism or 
tuberculosis. In addition to the general annual conferences the 
inspectors at their discretion may hold more frequent meetings 
of the assistant teachers, and special conferences with school 
principals. 

Bavaria, however, has a more comprehensive system for the 
training of teachers during the early years of their service. In 
each district a school principal of some ability is appointed by the 
District Administrative Board (Kreisregierung) to hold an ex- 

*Kxetzschmar, Fr., p. 59. 

"Seydewitz, p. 227. 

'Englmann, p. 73. 

'Pliischke, pp. 598-607; Kretzschmar, Fr., p. 60; Bremen, p. 575. 

'Seydewitz, pp. 118 and 229. 



loo Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

tension course for the purpose of continuing the education and 
inspiring young teachers with the seriousness of their calling and 
a strong professional spirit. All teachers not holding a perma- 
nent appointment, those teachers who obtained only the third or 
lowest qualifying mark in the appointment examination, and 
teachers who are not performing satisfactory service are obliged 
to attend these extension courses.^ Other teachers may attend 
voluntarily provided that there is no conflict with their other 
duties. Programmes and text-books are suggested annually for 
private study. Libraries have been instituted in each district 
under the charge of the directing principal and a committee of 
teachers. The books which are useful for such libraries are sug- 
gested in bulletins issued by the Ministry and the approval of the 
district authority is necessary for the purchase of books. The 
libraries are subsidized by provincial funds. Reading clubs for 
the purchase and circulation of magazines are suggested in the 
official regulations. Besides directing the reading the principal 
in charge of an extension course must also hold four conferences 
each year of those who must take part in further training. Lec- 
tures on educational subjects connected with the private reading, 
discussions of the curriculum, new methods and text-books, re- 
ports on the literature dealing with the elementary school, model 
lessons and addresses by specialists may form the work of these 
conferences. The participants must hand in an essay on some 
topic approved by the district inspector and the faculty of a nor- 
mal school, which is corrected and returned at the succeeding 
conference and discussed. On the practical side the teacher must 
carefully perform his routine work, such as drawing up lesson- 
plans, dividing the annual course of study into sections for each 
month or half-month, and recording important parts of the 
work in a diary. The principal in charge of the further training 
visits them at their work and may inspect their diaries and other 
records and the exercise-books of their pupils. 

The district inspectors and the principals in charge of exten- 
sion courses conduct an annual conference for all teachers with- 
out exception. 

The opportunities which the German teachers enjoy for further 
training in an informal way are numerous. They include 

'Englmann, pp. 197-204. 



The Training of Teachers in Service loi 

teachers' associations, library facilities and educational museums, 
vacation courses at the universities and travel. The teachers' 
associations have developed a very great activity within the last 
decade. The earliest^*' efforts to realize a professional union 
among teachers arose in the eighteenth century out of confer- 
ences conducted by those of the clergy who recognized the im- 
portance of doing something to improve the type of teachers then 
offering themselves for service. At the beginning the work of 
assisting young teachers and particularly those who had not re- 
ceived training in a normal school was undertaken by older teach- 
ers at periodical conferences. Out of reading circles and asso- 
ciations for mutual assistance higher aims were evolved. The 
aim of the earliest societies was as much the improvement of 
public elementary education as of their members. Thus in 1805 
there was formed the Society for the friends of the national 
school and educational system (Gesellschaft der Freunde des 
vaterldndischen Schul-und Ersiehungswesens), and in Berlin the 
Berlin School Society (1813) changed its title to Berlin School 
Association for German Elementary Education {Berlinischer 
Schulverein fur deutsches Volksschulwesen)}'^ As the profes- 
sional consciousness rapidly increased teachers' festivals for 
teachers over a larger area began to be organized which met only 
for social purposes, but did not fail to contribute to an improve- 
ment of the professional standards and tone of those who at- 
tended. During the period of political awakening suspicion be- 
gan to fall on the assemblies, conferences and associations of 
teachers. In 1842 the Rhenish Teachers were forbidden to hold 
their annual meeting; in 1843 the same prohibition was issued 
against the teachers of Silesia. But the opposition only served to 
strengthen the professional aspirations of the teachers. Their 
activity in connection with the Revolution of 1848 and the resolu- 
tions framed at Frankfort have already been referred to. A sug- 
gestion for a general association of teachers throughout Germany 
had been made in 1847, t>ut the time was unpropitious.^^ In 
1848, however, at a meeting of three hundred teachers held at 
Eisenach the General German Teachers' Association (Allge- 

"For a ftill account of the subject of teachers' associations see Riss- 
mann, Geschichte des deutschen Lehrervereins (Berlin, 1908). 
"Rissmann, p. 23. 
"Ibid., p. 43. 



I02 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

meine deutsche Lehrerverein) was formed, but met with so much 
opposition from the authorities in the different states that the 
permanent organization was changed in 1852 and its place was 
taken by a biennial conference (Allgemeine deutsche Lehrer- 
versammlung) }^ Questions of method and general educational 
theory, matters affecting the professional status of elementary 
school teachers and the welfare of the schools, and opposition to 
clerical bureaucratic control formed the subjects of discussion. 
But the lack of some form of definite organization to represent 
the teachers was felt and in 1871 steps were taken to remedy this 
deficiency. In that year the German Teachers' Association 
{Deutsche Lehrerverein) was formed. The first aim of this as- 
sociation was declared to be to promote the progress of popular 
education through improvement of the elementary school. The 
association was to be distinctly undenominational. It also 
stood for better facilities and improvement in the training of 
teachers and for the economic welfare of its members. In or- 
ganization it consists of local associations which subscribe to its 
statutes, and have no religious distinctions for membership. The 
association has made arrangements for the insurance of its mem- 
bers at reduced rates, provides legal aid, subsidizes a convalescent 
home for teachers, distributes information on matters affecting 
the teachers' interests, supports the Deutsche Schulmuseum at 
Berlin and the Comenius-stiftung in Leipzig, collects and pub- 
lishes statistics, and issues a monthly journal {Deutsche Schule), 
and an annual {Jahrbuch des deutschen Lehrervereins) . Like 
other associations the General German Association had its 
periods of difficulty. In 1880 it encountered the opposition of the 
Minister of Education, Puttkamer, who forbade teachers to at- 
tend its meetings. But succeeding ministers have recognized 
its importance. For a time it also had to contend against the 
opposition of the General Conference, but in 1893 the two were 
amalgamated. That an organization which stands for undenomi- 
nationalism and professional inspection of schools should have 
incurred the suspicions of the reactionaries is not a matter for 
surprise. Opposition on this side led to the organization of de- 
nominational associations, the one representing protestant inter- 
ests {Verhande deutscher evangelischer Schul-und Lehrer- 

"Ibid., pp. 67-104. 



The Training of Teachers in Service 103 

vereine), and the other catholic {Katholische Lehrerverhand 
Deutschlands). But the General Association has remained 
practically unaffected by these movements as may be seen from 
the fact that out of 124,027 teachers in the elementary schools 
112,768 belonged to the Association in 1906. Of a more serious 
consequence is the recent movement among school principals to 
form an association devoted to their own interests and for the 
purpose of extending their powers in the schools and of demand- 
ing an increase of salary. This movement called out another to 
safeguard the interests of class-teachers. It is probable, however, 
that the excellent spirit shown by the principals in Berlin of 
forming a section within the General Association will contribute 
to a settlement of the matter and prevent any dissipation of the 
power of a body which can claim to represent the interests of 
almost the whole of the German teaching profession engaged in 
elementary schools. 

Within the General Association there are smaller associations 
representing areas of smaller size. The chief of these is the 
Prussian Teachers' Association. But the larger the association, 
the more extensive and general is the scope of the topics which 
are discussed. It is in the local and necessarily small societies 
that an activity which is of importance for the professional 
growth of the teachers is developed. One association will be 
taken as a type and the syllabi of two of the branch societies will 
be given by way of example. The District Association of Han- 
nover had twenty-four branch societies in 1908, each of which 
had on an average ten meetings during one year. At Hameln 
the following lectures^* and discussions took place in the society 
which has a membership of thirty-nine, all the teachers of the 
town but one : 

Lectures: i. The danger of alcohol. 2. Animal psychology. 
3. Heredity. 4. The origin of coal. 5. History of the origin of 
the earth. 6. Interest as the chief factor in education and in- 
struction. 7. A lesson out of the industrial and handicrafts in- 
struction in the local elementary school. 8. Sense-perception and 
idea. 9. Bacteriology in the elementary school. Discussions: 
The movement for equal pay. Report of the resolutions of dele- 



"Taken from an announcement of the Bezirkslehrerverein, Hannover, 
1908. 



I04 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

gates of the district on the salary question. The establishment of 
central treasuries for salaries. Support for young widows of 
teachers. Attitude on the inquiry of the mayor on the establish- 
ment of a public library and reading-room. Report on the an- 
nual district conference. The proposals of another local asso- 
ciation on a reform of religious instruction. 

At Polle where the association had a membership of nine out 
of ten local teachers the following programme represents ac- 
tivity for 1908: 

Lectures: i. Some theories of the origin of coral islands and 
coral reefs and their importance in geophysical questions. 2. 
Reform movements in the teaching of natural history. 3. How 
can the teacher aid in the relief of stuttering and stammering? 
4. Modern lyric poetry. 5. A bacteriological study. 6, Apper- 
ception. 7. Mechanical difficulties in reading German script. 

As an example of the assistance which the associations in the 
larger towns can afford to their members in their efforts for 
further education the excellent precedent established by the 
Teachers' Association of Leipzig may be cited. In 1906 there 
was founded by this Association the Institute for Experimental 
Pedagogy and Psychology (Instituf fur experimentelle Pdda- 
gogik und Psychologic), under the direction of Privatdozent Dr. 
Brahn.^° The purpose of this institute is to teach its members 
the method of experimental pedagogy and psychology and to 
encourage experimental research in these fields. There is an an- 
nual introductory course in which the methods and the use of 
apparatus for experiment in psychology are taught. After this 
course monthly meetings are held for discussions, at which the 
following subjects have been treated: Individual differences, 
fatigue, children's drawings, the works of Meumann, the most 
suitable age for children to enter school. In another course the 
works on child study in English are translated and a study of 
Wundt's "Psychology" is made. In this connection should be 
mentioned that a translation of E. A. Kirkpatrick's "Fundamen- 
tals of Child Study " was made under the auspices of the Leip- 
zig Teachers' Association. The following studies have been 
made as part of the research work conducted by the Institute: 

"Kalender des Pestalozzi-Vereins (supplement), (Klinkhardt, Leipzig 
1908) 



The Training of Teachers in Service 105 

The influence of question on the answer, the effect of sensations 
and emotions on pulsation and breathing in the case of healthy 
and pathological subjects, the perception of simple geometrical 
forms, the comprehension of number, the development of the 
color-sense in children, the psychology of children's drawings. 

The Institute also conducts a special course in connec!tion with 
the university extension classes, which are held annually under 
the auspices of the Saxon Teachers' Association. The course 
which lasts two weeks includes lectures on the following sub- 
jects: Meaning and purpose of sociology; ideation and memory; 
German literature; political economy; economic geography of 
Saxony; zoology; geology; experimental psychology. The 
course is open to all teachers, male and female, without distinc- 
tion of residence or religion. 

In those towns, however, which do not stand in such intimate 
relationship with universities the practice has grown up by which 
lecturers from neighboring universities conduct short courses 
under the auspices of the local teachers' associations.^® 

Two other means of self-improvement stand at the disposal of 
the German teachers, the libraries and educational museums. The 
library facilities are perhaps unexcelled. In addition to the local 
and district libraries, which in Prussia and Bavaria receive state 
subsidies, the teachers may obtain books from the national 
libraries at Berlin and Dresden, the Deutsche Schulmuseum in 
Berlin and the Comenius Stiftung in Leipzig, all of which dis- 
tribute books by mail without charge. The museums play an 
important part, particularly in Prussia where they are largely 
used by teachers in preparation for the examinations for teachers 
in middle schools and school principals. The majority of the 
museums originated with the teachers' associations, which still 
control them, although several have been taken over by municipal 
corporations, while others receive government aid. The aim and 
purpose of the educational museums cannot be expressed better 
than in the statement of the City School Museum of Breslau. 
"To assist the teaching body of Breslau and the province in their 
further education and especially in their preparation for examina- 
tions, to aid the municipal authorities in the provision of suitable 
school appliances and equipment, and to afford advice and help 

"Lexis, Vol. Ill, p. 323. 



io6 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

to every one who desires professional information, that is the 
aim of the Breslau school mtiseum."^'^ The chief sections of the 
museum include exhibits illustrating school architecture and fur- 
niture, school hygiene and statistics, teaching appliances, scien- 
tific collections, library, autographs, busts and portraits of im- 
portant schoolmen. 

While the other educational museums of Germany do not 
cover completely the scope of the Breslau museum in extent 
either of aim or collections, similar features are found in all of 
them. Thus the Comenius-Stiftung in Leipzig and the Deutsche 
Schulmuseum have educational libraries of considerable size and 
note ; the St'ddtische Schulmuseum in Berlin in addition to a large 
library also possesses good laboratories to enable the teachers of 
the town to perform practical experiments in physics and chem- 
istry in connection with which courses are also given at the 
museum; the museum at Magdeburg affords the teachers an op- 
portunity of becoming acquainted with good school equipment 
and teaching appliances; the St'ddtische Schulmuseum in Han- 
nover contains good physical and chemical cabinets, and collec- 
tions of specimens for nature study and mineralogy.^^ 

But however extensive the provisions for self-improvement 
through library and museum facilities and through short lecture 
courses may be, the demands of the whole of the German teachers 
engaged in elementary schools for opportunity to study at the 
universities continue to be vigorously agitated. Educators who 
are so well acquainted with the problems of teacher-training as 
Rein, Seyfert, Muthesius and Andreae, while they recognize the 
immediate impossibility of training teachers for the elementary 
schools at the universities, agree in supporting the demands for 
after-training in those institutions. The success of the experi- 
ment of granting the permission in Saxony, Hesse, Saxe-Weimar, 
and since 1906 in Bavaria, no longer justifies the opposition of the 
Prussian government in withholding university privileges from 
teachers in that state. The opposition is based mainly on the 
fear that teachers who have enjoyed university training would 
refuse to return to service in the elementary schools or at any 

"Htibner, Das stadtische Schulmuseum zu Breslau. 

"Htibner, Die deutsche Schulmuseen (Breslau, 1904); Andrews, B. R., 
Museums of Education and their Uses, Teachers College Record, Sept. 
1908 (New York, 1908). 



The Training of Teachers in Service 107 

rate in the rural schools, and that this course might eventually 
necessitate such a revision of the salary schedules as the state 
could not support. In addition to the opponents w^ho belong to 
the reactionary camp and would refuse to see any improvement 
in the status of teachers, there are also those who are opposed to 
the admission of any students to the universities who have not a 
knowledge of Latin. A third form of opposition starts from the 
standpoint that as at present constituted the universities are not 
suitable institutions for the further training of teachers, and that 
until chairs in pedagogy and practice or experimental schools 
are established in all the universities, the teachers would receive 
no advantage from university privileges. But the probability of 
the removal of this deficiency in Prussia seems remote, and the 
study of education will for some time to come continue to be a 
part of the faculty of philosophy.^® 

Technically all who have pursued studies leading up to the 
privilege of military service of one year as a volunteer may 
matriculate at the universities for four to six semesters^" {kleine 
Immatrikulation) without proceeding to a degree, but since there 
is another regulation forbidding those who are in the service of 
the state from being enrolled in the universities, all that remains 
to the graduates of the normal schools is the permission to at- 
tend lectures as auditors. The German, however, is dissatisfied 
with any course of study which does not conclude with some 
final examination and a diploma, so that little use is made of this 
privilege. University extension courses for teachers are held at 
the following universities: Berlin, Bonn, Breslau, Erlangen, 
Heidelberg, Kiel, Konigsberg, Leipzig, Munich, and Wiirzburg. 
The nature of the course at Leipzig has already been described. 

To Saxony^^ belongs the credit of first throwing open the uni- 
versity of Leipzig to elementary school teachers. The original 
grant of this privilege, which was first made in 1865, has since 
been somewhat restricted. At first permission to enter the uni- 
versity was given to those teachers who had obtained the first 

**0n the general question of University training of teachers see P'dda- 
gogisches Jahrbtich, 1905, pp. 175-181; 1906, pp. 139-147; 1907, pp. 202-205. 

^^P'ddagogisches Jahrbuch, 1906, p. 146. 

'^Leipziger Lehrerzeitung, July 28, 1909, Das Universatsstudium der 
SSchsischen Seminarakademiker in den Grundzfigen seiner bisherigen 
Entwickelung. 



io8 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

mark in the eligibility examination, while those who had only 
obtained the second mark could obtain permission by direct appli- 
cation to the ministry. Since 18,90, however, the ministry will 
only consider applications from those who received the first mark 
with some qualification (lb), and will only grant permission 
under special circumstances. Those who are admitted to the 
University under this regulation now have full university privi- 
leges and may proceed to a degree, but they are registered as 
students of pedagogy (Kandidat der P adage gik), and must take 
academic subjects. To this examination reference has already 
been made as also to the privileges which it confers. The 
already been made as also to the privileges which it confers. The 
success of the students who avail themselves of this opportunity 
of attending, the university has been frequently quoted to justify 
the extension of similar privileges to the Prussian teachers. The 
following comparative table showing the success in the degree 
examination of the fully matriculated students and those admit- 
ted under the law of 1865,^^ is significant, if some allowance is 
made for the influences of selection in both groups : 

Dissertations 
normal school graduates 



I (egregia) 



7 (i5.2Cper cent .) 



II (admodum) 



23 (50 per cent.) 



III( I-audabilis) 



16 (34.8 percent.) 



IV (idonea Jaud- 
abil s) 



STUDENTS FULLY ADMITTED 



45 (9-9 per cent. )|i74(38.4 percent. )]i83(4o. 4 percent. )|5i(i3. 3 percent.) 



Oral Examinations 
normal school graduates 



I (summa cum 
laude) 



14 (30.4 per cent.) 



II (magna cum 
laude) 



23 (50 per cent.) 



Ill (cum laude) 



9 (19.6 per cent.) 



IV {rite laude) 



STUDENTS FULLY ADMITTED 



72 (15.9 per cent.)|i86 (41 per cent.)|i48(32,7 percent.)J47(io.4percent.) 



^P'ddagogisches Jahrbuch, 1905, p. 179. 



The Training of Teachers in Service 109 

These figures are compiled from the reports of the school of 
philosophy for the years 1900 to 1903. Whatever significance 
they have can, however, only be of value in Saxony. The differ- 
ence between the training which is given in the Prussian and 
Saxon normal schools is so great, that it is doubtful whether the 
graduates of Prussian normal schools would make so good a 
showing. Of greater importance as an argument against those 
who fear that once the privilege of attending the university is 
granted to teachers there will be a general invasion, is the fact 
that in the summer semester of 1909 only one hundred and sixty- 
nine "students of pedagogy" were registered at Leipzig. 

Since 1906 those teachers who pass an especially good examin- 
ation on leaving the normal schools of Bavaria^^ may receive per- 
mission after two years' service to enter a university for two 
years. The course is to be concluded by an examination which 
will take the place of the appointments examination. It is very 
probable that from these students the future teachers will be 
selected for the normal schools. In the same year on the sugges- 
tion of Dr. Andreae, the minister of education, was induced to 
consult the three state universities on the advisability of estab- 
lishing chairs of pedagogy and practice schools. Only one uni- 
versity, Erlangen, favored the establishment of a new chair of 
philosophy with the object of dealing with pedagogy. The re- 
plies on the other question were unfavorable. Pedagogy will for 
a further period remain to be treated by the professor of philoso- 
phy who may have the inclination to do so.^* 

At present the university of Jena continues to be the only in- 
stitution where there is a model school for experimental work. 
To the pedagogical course teachers from all parts of Germany, 
are admitted, but the study of pedagogy is taken up as a minor 
in the faculty of philosophy. 

One other course remains for those who wish to study at the 
universities, but have not the requisite qualifications for en- 
trance. By dint of private study they may make up the require- 
ments for the Ahiturienten-examen by passing which they can 
become fully registered students at the universities. The exami- 
nation, however, is more rigorous for candidates who do not 



^^P'ddagogische Jahresschau, 1906, p. 125 (Leipzig and Berlin, 1907). 
^Rept. U. S. Com. Educ, 1909, p. 500. 



no Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

present themselves from the secondary schools after the recog- 
nized course of study. Private tutorial institutions exist for the 
purpose of cramming candidates for the examination. It may, 
however, be mentioned that teachers are warned against this 
method of approaching the universities. 

Of travelling as a means of self-improvement the German 
teacher does not fail to avail himself. There are indications 
which show that his wanderings are taking him beyond the bor- 
ders of his native country. The German Teachers' Association 
publishes a travellers' handbook every two years in the interest of 
its members.^** 



^'Rissmann, p. 178. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE TRAINING OF WOMEN TEACHERS 

The rapid and normally maintained increase of women teachers 
in Germany is demanding greater attention to what is becoming 
an important educational problem each year. Although the pro- 
portion of women to men has not reached and is not likely for 
some time to reach the figures in France, England and America, 
considerable alarm is felt at what is regarded as a rapid femini- 
zation of the elementary schools. ,While at one time the men 
were willing to permit the appointment of women to classes con- 
taining only girls, their encroachment into the lower mixed 
classes has been so great, that the views of men as expressed at 
teachers' associations are becoming unfavorable even to the 
limited appointment of women. The argument against the em- 
ployment of women in schools in Germany takes the following 
lines: Education is a function shared by the schools with the 
family; in the latter the feminine influence is so strong that it 
must be balanced by the influence of men in the class-room. 
Even in the teaching of girls it has not been demonstrated that 
women are more qualified than men. Statistics are produced to 
prove that the employment of women is not efficient from the ad- 
ministrative point of view, for women are not physically adapted 
to resist the strain of the class-room and are consequently absent 
more frequently. In the last resort men teachers recognize a 
danger to the state in the increased employment of women. On 
the other hand there are many who not only support the appoint- 
ment of women to girls' classes, but claim for them equal pay for 
equal work. At the same time the demand is made that women 
should receive the same training as men. 

The facts, however, show that the increase of women teachers 
is inevitable and must be faced in Germany as in all other coun- 
tries. Conditions at present favor the increase of women in the 
teaching profession, or at any rate are such as to favor the en- 

III 



112 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

trance of men into other occupations, owing to the general com- 
mercial prosperity of the country. The recent dearth of male 
teachers was a further factor favoring not only the increased 
employment of women, but in a part of Prussia even the sus- 
pension by Minister Studt of the rule against the appointment of 
married women. The Prussian salary law of 1909 gave the same 
increase of initial salary to women and men. 

The . following table^ shows the number of women teachers in 
the three representative states and the comparative increase in 
five years, 1901-1906: 





Women 
Teachers 


Increase 


Increase 
OP Men 


Per Cent, op 
Women in 
Propession 




1 90 1 


1906 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


1901 


1906- 


Prussia 

Bavaria 

Saxony 


13,866 

2,715 
401 


17,784 

3,861 

653 


28.3 
42 .2 
62.8 


II-3 

3-1 

20. 6 


15 
18 

4 


17 

24 

5 



In the same period the increase in the number of school chil- 
dren attending the elementary schools of Prussia was 8.72 per 
cent, and of girls alone approximately 1.5 per cent.^ Thus the 
increase of women teachers in Prussia in the five years has been 
absolute. It must be added that the greater part of the increase 
occurred in Catholic districts not only through the female teach- 
ing orders but also through the large number of lay women in- 
spired by them to enter the teaching profession.^ 

The training of women teachers in Prussia has not received 
the same attention as the training of men. With the exception of 
the regulations governing the Royal Normal School for Women 
Teachers in Droyssig no other regulations have been published. 
The Droyssig regulations, however, furnish a standard for the 
other normal schools. There are fifteen royal normal schools for 
women and forty-five established by cities, usually in connection 
with a higher school for girls. At Droyssig candidates must be 
between seventeen and twenty-four at the time of entering. The 



^P'ddagogisches Tahrbuch, 1907, p. 232. 

^Statistisches Jahrbuch fur den preussischen Staat, 1908, p. 157. 

'Herber, Das Lehrerinnenwesen in Deutschland, p. 117. 



The Training of Women Teachers 113 

entrance examination which is written and oral includes a writ- 
ten German essay and some problems in arithmetic, and oral ques- 
tions similar to those given to candidates for entrance to the nor- 
mal schools for men. A knowledge of French, singing, piano or 
violin is expected. In those normal schools which are attached 
to higher girls' schools candidates enter the normal schools on 
completing the high school course. The curriculum of the nor- 
mal schools is regulated by the requirements of the examination 
for women teachers of April 24th, 1874.* 

In addition to the royal and city normal schools there are also 
numerous private institutions which serve to prepare candidates 
for the teachers' examination. The result of this indiscriminate 
preparation was to cause the issue of a regulation in 1901^ by 
which all candidates who presented themselves for examination 
must produce evidence of having had practical training. 

The training of women teachers is somewhat complicated in 
Prussia by the fact that in the majority of normal schools candi- 
dates for appointment in the elementary and higher girls' schools 
follow the same courses. In fact it may be said that the majority 
of girls commence with the intention of entering service in the 
higher institutions and that frequently the elementary school is 
an afterthought due to failure to pass the examination for em- 
ployment in the higher girls' schools. The duration of the normal 
school courses for women is three years. The candidates are in 
most cases better prepared than those who enter the normal 
schools for men. The majority on entering have already enjoyed 
a secondary education in a school which did not prepare exclu- 
sively for the normal schools. Thus a good knowledge of Ger- 
man, French and English, history and geography can be ex- 
pected. But the same standard will not have been attained iti 
mathematics as by the men. In science and religion there is no 
perceptible difference. So far as academic preparation is con- 
cerned the women students in the normal schools have a better 
start than the men, in so far as their preparation has not been 
limited by restricted requirements. 

The curriculum consists of the following subjects: German, 
religion, mathematics, history, geography, needlework, French 

^Bremen, p. 297. 

•Ibid, p. 305. 



114 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

and English, nature study (including some physics and chemis- 
try), drawing, gymnastics, music and pedagogy. The last sub- 
ject is divided into history of education, psychology and educa- 
tional theory and is spread over the three years of the course. 
The method of each subject is taught by the instructor in charge 
of the subject. The theoretical part of the professional work is 
given as much attention as in the men's normal schools. The 
training is weak on the practical side. Observation and practice 
are not taken up until the third year and take place usually in the 
lower classes of the girls' higher schools. Each student has from 
six to eight hours of observation and practice during each week, 
of which about two are devoted to practice. The class-teacher 
is always present, and frequently several students. Very com- 
monly each practising student teaches only for half a period. 
The lessons are discussed beforehand and it is then decided 
whether one or more students shall teach during the period. In 
no case do the student-teachers have full charge of the class, as 
for example in the control of the books and discipline. A fur- 
ther defect is that the teacher of method is very rarely present 
during the practice-lessons in his subjects. As a rule the stu- 
dent-teachers in the women's normal schools are lacking in 
initiative, and often do little else than imitate a lesson which they 
have observed. 

A reform" of the entire system of training women teachers is, 
however, in progress and it is very probable that more attention 
will be paid to practice-teaching in the future. The proposed 
reform is designed to extend the course by an additional year. 
The first three years will be devoted to academic and the fourth 
to purely professional training. At the same time it is also likely 
that the training of candidates for elementary and girls' higher 
schools will be differentiated, although at present the only addi- 
tional, but not required, work which is carried by the student who 
intends to enter an elementary school is English. 

With the exception of the practice work the standards in the 
women's normal schools seem higher than in those for men. Of 
course there is a better foundation when the candidates enter the 
normal schools, and the pressure is considerably less, but in addi- 
tion there is an utter absence of the drill and recitation method 



*Central-Blatt, April, 1909, p. 370. 



The Training of Women Teachers 115 

which is so marked in the normal schools for men. There is more 
cooperation and activity in the class-room and a higher standard 
of scholarship. The language lessons attain a very high level of 
perfection and are always taught by instructors who have studied 
the languages abroad. The whole of the lessons are carried on 
without a word of German. So far as English is concerned the 
only criticism one could pass is that the readers apart from the 
works of Shakespere by no means impressed one as classics. 

At the end of the three years candidates, if they have reached 
the age of nineteen, may present themselves for examination. A 
certain number of schools have the privilege of setting their own 
leaving examinations, which are recognized by the state as 
qualifying for appointment. Where this privilege does not hold, 
candidates must present themselves for examination before a 
commission consisting of a commissioner representing the pro- 
vincial school board and three or more members appointed by the 
Chief President of the province and consisting of school council- 
lors and directors and instructors of girls' higher schools. The 
examination is theoretical and practical. The theoretical exami- 
nation is written and oral. The written part consists of a GerT 
man essay, some problems in arithmetic, and a French exercise. 
The theory and practice of education, and the obligatory sub- 
jects of the elementary school form the subjects of the oral test. 
The practical examination consists of the presentation of a les- 
son for the preparation of which twenty-four hours are allowed. 
The marks, which are given on the examination as a whole, are 
"very good," "good," "satisfactory" and "unsatisfactory," the 
last being equivalent to failure.'^ 

Women teachers like the men are appointed provisionally, but 
unlike the men they are not required to pass a second examina- 
tion for permanent appointment. At the end of two years at the 
earliest and not later than five years from their first appointment, 
they may be confirmed in their positions, provided that their 
work in service warrants such a course. After five years' ser- 
vice the examination for women school principals^ (of girls' 
schools, elementary, middle and higher) may be taken. This con- 
sists of an essay which the candidates prepare in eight weeks, 



^Bremen, p. 297 ff. 
*Ibid., p. 303. 



1 1 6 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

and an oral examination in the history and principles of educa- 
tion, psychology, special method, a knowledge of school appli- 
ances and popular and child literature. There are also special 
examinations for women teachers of female handicrafts, drawing 
and gymnastics, in which courses of instruction are offered, 
similar to those which are open to men. 

As was mentioned earlier women teachers were originally con'- 
fined to classes containing only girls and later to lower mixed 
classes. Although these restrictions are gradually disappearing, 
a position once held by a man cannot be filled by a woman with^ 
out a formal change of the character of that position.* 

The training of women in Saxony and Bavaria shows very little 
variation from that of the men. In Saxony^'^ there are only 
three normal schools for women (Callnberg, Dresden and Leip- 
zig) . The duration of the courses is four or five years. The en- 
trance qualifications consist of a knowledge of the work of a 
graded elementary school, although credit is given for work done 
beyond that stage. These normal schools differ from those for 
men in substituting English for Latin, but this subject as well as 
music is optional; while French and needlework are compulsory. 
The qualifying examinations for appointment are the same as 
for the men. Women are not exempted from further examina- 
tions for permanent appointment. So far as the nature of their 
appointments are concerned women may only be employed in 
girls' classes or in mixed classes in the lower or middle sections 
of schools. As in Prussia women teachers can only hold their 
appointments until marriage. 

The training of women teachers for elementary schools in Ba- 
varia^^ is left to private institutions with the exception of three 
state normal schools. The course of training in the state institu- 
tions is similar to that for men with the substitution of French 
and female handicrafts for agriculture, and preparation for 
secretarial and church service. Instruction in music is limited to 
singing and the violin. Each of the three state normal 
schools (Munich, Memmingen and Aschaffenburg) is governed 
by special regulations. Candidates on entering the pr€paratory 

•Plfischke, p. 178. 
^'Kretzschmar, J. F., pp. 92-100. 
"Englmann, pp. 439 flf. 



The Training of Women Teachers iiy 

sections must be between the ages of thirteen and seventeen, and 
must pass an examination in the subjects of a graded elementary 
school. The preparatory course extends over three years, at the 
end of which candidates on passing an examination in the work of 
the third year may enter on the two-year normal school course. 
All candidates whether trained in a public or private institution 
must pass the final examination of a public normal school before 
they can enter on the practical training preparatory to employ- 
ment as teachers (Schuldienst-exspectantinnen) . At the end of 
four years they may present themselves for the appointments ex- 
amination (Anstellungspriifung), which has already been de- 
scribed. Women can only be appointed to positions previously 
held by women or to schools where one or more men teachers are 
employed. In every case they may only teach classes of girls or 
mixed classes in the lower sections. The appointments held by 
women lapse on their marriage. 

In addition to lay women teachers a large number of women 
belonging to teaching orders is employed in Bavaria. These 
teachers must have the ordinary qualifications. They are only 
employed by consent of town or district authorities, who enter 
into agreements with the superior of the order for the supply of 
teachers and the salaries to be paid. The responsibility of ap- 
pointment then rests with the superior and the approval of the 
usual administrative authority is not required. 

The salaries of women teachers are in Prussia and Bavaria 
lower than those for men. But the appointments carry with 
them the provision of a house or compensation for rent and the 
right to pensions. In Prussia the initial salary for women teach- 
ers not holding a permanent appointment is 960 M. ($240) ; this 
rises on definite appointment to 1200 M. ($300). The incre- 
ments which begin after seven years' service and accrue every 
three years are for the first two payments 100 M. ($25) and 150 
M. ($37.50) thereafter. Pensions are paid in the same propor- 
tions to women as to men.^^ 

The initial salary of an assitant schoolmistress (Hilfsleh- 
rerin) in Bavaria^^ is 820 M. ($205) a year rising on permanent 
appointment to 1000 M. ($250). The first increment after five 



^^Das Lehrerbesoldungsgesetz vom. 26 Mai, 1909. 
"Englmann, p. 210. 



ii8 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

years' service is 72 M. ($18), followed by four increments of 48 
M. ($12) and four of 60 M. ($15) at intervals of five years. On 
retiring from service women teachers are assured a minimum 
pension of 720 M. ($180) a year. 

In Saxony the salary scales are the same for men and women 
so far as the minima assured by the state are concerned. 

A comparison" of the service ages of men and women teachers 
in Prussia is adequate testimony to the fact that women have 
entered the profession to stay, although the sudden drop shown 
by the first two figures is evidence as much of the lack of 
physical endurance as of the presence of other opportunities. On 
the whole, however, the comparison is very favorable for the 
women : 



Years of Service 



Men 


Per cent. 


19.47 


17 


99 


IS 


17 


15 


19 


18 


98 


10 


03 


3 


04 




13 



Women 



Up to five . , 
From 6-10 . 

"-IS 

16-20 

21-30 

31-39 

40-49 • 

SO and over 



Per cent. 

31.92 

21 .61 

14. 10 

12 .60 

iS-78 

3-54 

•44 

.01 



The sudden drop after thirty years of service is explicable on 
the ground that women did not enter either the teaching or other 
occupations in such large numbers thirty years ago, although 
inability to stand the strain may be largely responsible for the 
dropping-out at this period as well as in the first ten years of 
service. 

Within the last twenty years associations^^ of women teachers 
have developed great activity. The most important of these is 
the Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerinnenverein, which is undenomi- 
national. One of the elements of strength in the movement is 
that teachers of all grades of schools have up to the present stood 
together. The probability, however, is that the near future will 
see tiie developm'ent of new societies along class distinctions, fos- 



"Herber, p. 121. 
"Ibid., pp. 162 a. 



The Training of Women Teachers 119 

tered by the regulation for the separation of the training of 
teachers for girls' higher and elementary schools. The General 
Association of Women Teachers {Allg. d. Lehrerinnenverein) 
was founded in 1890 to promote the intellectual and material wel- 
fare of women teachers, and to advance the interests of popular 
education. The association has committees for social work, legal 
protection, the collection of statistics, and for propaganda. Since 
the association is open not only to those engaged in teaching but 
to all women, it has become the centre of the women's movement 
in Germany and has brought out some of the most able leaders 
among the German women of the present. 

In addition to the General Association several denominational 
societies exist. 

There can be no doubt that the employment of women in 
schools will continue to increase in Germany, but it is difficult to 
say how long it will be before conditions reach the same position 
as in other countries. Certain it is that the progress of the move- 
ment for the emancipation of women has proportionately been 
more rapid in Germany within the last fifteen years than else- 
where. Whether the self-interest of the male teaching body to- 
gether with an unreasoning prejudice or conviction that the em- 
ployment of women teachers is dangerous to the welfare of the 
state will be powerful enough to prevent the increase of women 
in the teaching profession remains to be seen. But it may be said 
with some degree of certainty that the men have not made out a 
case for their claim that they understand the problem of teach- 
ing girls better than their female colleagues. So long as the 
separation of the sexes continues to be maintained in the schools 
of Germany, so long will the claim of the women to more in- 
creased employment in the teaching of girls be justified. 



CHAPTER X 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

iGermany insists that the teachers of the country shall be 
trained. For this purpose a training course, of six years has 
been established. The training institutions are segregated from 
other types of education so that specialization may be said to be- 
gin with the fourteenth year. The first three years of the course 
are preparatory and academic ; the last three years are academic 
and professional. Practical work is begun in the fifth year and 
continued through the last year, the amount varying in the dif- 
ferent states. The graduates of the normal schools are only ap- 
pointed on probation. In order to secure permanent appoint- 
ments candidates must undergo a second examination, consisting 
mainly of professional subjects. While female teachers are in a 
minority, their number is rapidly increasing. In many states they 
enjoy the same training as the men, but in Prussia the system of 
training young women is not yet definitely determined. 

It is a matter of some difficulty in attempting to estimate the 
value of an educational system in a foreign country to decide on 
the standards of criticism to be adopted. And this is particu- 
larly true in a consideration of the German system from an 
American or English standpoint. On the one side are monarchy, 
direction, systematization, the most stringent form of bureau- 
cratic control. On the other side are found democracy, local 
control, an almost complete absence of system, or almost 
as many systems as there are normal schools. Differences 
of nationality, of environment, of traditions mean differences of 
ideals and method of attainment. It would be well perhaps to go 
back to the question of the motives which prompt society to 
establish public schools. The primary motive is the desire of 
society to realize its ideals through the schools and the instru- 

120 



Summary and Conclusions 121 

mentality of the teaehers. Judged by this standard the German 
system of training teachers, the first step towards the realization 
of the German ideals, is highly successful. The aim of the ele- 
mentary school in Germany is to impart to the pupils a reverence 
for authority, human and divine, and a certain amount of 
knowledge. With this goes the acceptance of a fixed and definite 
amount of intellectual attainments suitable for the masses of the 
nation. Such an aim, since it is definite and precise, it must be 
admitted is not difficult to attain. The case is different with 
America. Here the ideal, while generally recognized and ac- 
cepted as the true ideal of a democratic people, is vague and ex- 
pressed in terms which as yet have no definite content. The en- 
couragement of individuality, the equalization of opportunity, 
training for social efficiency are complex terms which easily lend 
themselves to discussion without providing an answer to the 
question of how they are to be attained. This vagueness and 
complexity added to the necessity of adapting to local circum- 
stances have been causes of the slow progress made by the 
American normal schools. The success of the German system, 
and it is permissible to talk of a system since the whole of Ger- 
many upholds the ideal mentioned above, lies in the careful or- 
ganization of means to realize a well-defined end. This is a les- 
son which the American normal schools cannot neglect. The 
problem is difficult and complicated but on its solution and on 
the establishment of a national standard depend the successful 
organization and administration of the normal schools, and the 
ultimate success of elementary education. 

But while the German system illustrates the importance of 
realizing the end to be attained, it is an equally good example of 
the dangersjof centralized administration and bureaucratic con- 
trol. To these causes is due the fact that there is a monotonous 
similarity among the normal schools of one state. Neither the 
director nor the instructor is permitted to depart from the pre- 
scription of the central authority. The individuality of the in- 
structors as much as of the pupils is sacrificed to the necessities 
of the administrative regulations. Uniformity is attained, but it 
is the undeviating uniformity of a machine. The national aim is 
placed above all else; local needs and local variations are disre- 
garded. At the other extreme stands the American practice, 
which is characterized by great variations, absence of national 



122 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

standards and a certain amount of local adaptation. But while 
such variation, if intelligently directed, affords opportunities for 
experimentation, leading ultimately to higher standards, there is 
a danger that local needs may prove too strong for the mainten- 
ance of requirements which are generally considered desirable in 
a teacher. Hence it is impossible to talk of a system ; hence the 
qualifications of teachers differ from one state to another, from 
one county to another in the same state, and from one city to an- 
other. The teachers of one state system may differ according to 
the grade of certificate that they hold and the previous training 
which they have received. It is significant that each local system 
until recently tended to hedge itself in and refuse to recognize 
the certification of its neighbor.^ In Prussia, however, a teacher 
from one part of the state can fit naturally into any type of ele- 
mentary school in another part, and throughout Germany a cer- 
tain amount of recognition of interstate certification is provided 
for. In that country the teacher is a person with qualifications 
which have a definite and widely understood significance; in this 
country the qualifications may have been obtained by examination 
in common school branches, in normal school with a course of 
any number of years after the elementary or high school, which 
in turn is not standardized, or lastly in a college, equally vague 
and undefined. The importance of a standardization of require- 
ments has long been recognized in Germany; the growth of a 
national system of education will be retarded in this country 
until the same recognition is given to this need. At the same 
time, however, the German system may serve as a warning 
against centralization. But the recognition of the same stan- 
dards is not incompatible with local administrative freedom and 
the exercise of initiative by the directors of normal schools. The 
English practice is a happy illustration of such a system in oper- 
ation. There the central Board of Education has established a 
lower limit in the training of teachers and publishes courses of 
study. The principals of normal schools are at liberty to accept 
the suggestions for the curriculum issued by the Board or to 
frame their own programmes, provided that this accords with 
the requirements of the central authority and an adequate reason 
for the departure can be given. Under such a system it is pos- 

^See Cubberly, Certification of Teachers, Ch. VIII (Chicago, 1906). 



Summary and Conclusions 123 

sible to have side by side denominational and non-sectarian 
training colleges, local systems of training teachers and univer- 
sity departments of education, all meeting the requirements of 
the Board and at the same time exercising a certain amount of 
individual responsibility. As a further illustration of the elasti- 
city of the system it may be mentioned that candidates may 
qualify for the certificate of the Board without attending any 
training college. While on this topic a further point of contrast 
between the English and German systems may be mentioned, as 
it is suggestive for American practice. Within recent years there 
has been a prolongation of the preparation through the secondary 
schools of those who intend to enter the teaching profession, to 
which is now added a year's experience as a student-teacher. 
Without entering into the merits of this previous training through 
apprenticeship, which depends so largely on the ability of the 
headmaster to whom the student is assigned, the principle by 
which a good academic training is given and too early speciali- 
zation is avoided must be emphasized. The present situation in 
England is also helpful as an indication of the tendency to raise 
the standards of qualifications demanded from elementary school 
teachers. A regulation has already been carried by which in 
19 14 vaccination and the attainment of the eighteenth birthday 
will no longer be recognized as qualifications to teach the rising 
generation. There is no doubt that a general levelling of stan- 
dards will take place in America in an upward direction as soon 
as the disparities in wealth and population between the states 
have been removed. This process will inevitably be slow, but 
changes and compromises can be made gradually as has been 
pointed out elsewhere.^ 

Another factor, however, enters into the problem of training 
teachers in America, which up to the present has only been 
making itself felt to a slight extent in Germany, There can be 
but little doubt that a good system of training teachers cannot be 
built up when the short period of their service not only adds to 
the expense of maintaining normal schools, but, owing to the 
need of keeping up a constant supply to fill the rapidly recurring 
vacancies, necessarily impairs efficiency. How the interplay of 
demand and supply affected the German normal schools was 

'Cubberly, Certification of Teachers. 



1 24 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

illustrated in the lowering of the standards in the entrance exam- 
inations a few years ago. But what was in Germany regarded 
as a more serious matter was the increased employment of women 
in the schools. The recent revision of salaries in Prussia and 
Saxony was an attempt to attract men back to the schools from 
the other and more remunerative occupations, for the feminiza- 
tion of the schools is generally viewed with alarm. But whether 
the situation is alarming or not, Germany must soon accept it as 
a fact as much as France, England and America. The problem of 
readjustment is likely to be difficult, but with the support of a 
national tradition and the centralized authority the female teacher 
will be able to carry out the task which is set before her. In a 
democratic state, however, there is something incongruous in 
placing a teacher, immature in years and experience, to teach the 
lessons and duties of a democratic citizen. 

Up to this point the lessons which may be drawn from a study 
of the German administration in its relation to the teacher have 
been dealt with. Coming to the more narrow field it will be 
found that the German system of training has some suggestive 
ideas to offer. Not the least important of these is the Prussian 
practice of entrusting the teaching of subject-matter and methods, 
and the supervision of practice to the same instructor. Any 
divorce of these functions is likely to lead to friction on the one 
side and to confusion in the mind of the students on the the other. 
And yet the Saxon practice of separation most generally pre- 
vails in the American normal schools. Undoubtedly the differ- 
ence in the number of pupils in the normal schools of the two 
countries leads to the differences in practice. The employment 
of critic teachers and directors of practice-teaching as distinct 
from the normal school instructors presupposes absolute unani- 
mity among them to secure success. On the whole, however, the 
Prussian practice has more to recommend it than that which is 
more current here, although it is dangerous to generalize in this 
as in so many other questions concerning the American normal 
schools. 

The different types of practice-teaching which are to be found 
in Germany have been considered. The chief defect seems to be 
an absence of sufficient preliminary observation of children. The 
main object of such observation as exists is to study the tech- 
nique of the teacher. Here again the practice vaf-ies widely in 



Summary and Conclusion 125 

American schools, but it may be said generally that opportunities 
for the observation of children are provided without, in many 
cases, being directed. In both countries the necessity of supply- 
ing teachers able to take full control of classes has tended to lay 
the emphasis in the practice-work on the apprenticeship type. 
To this is added the recognition that the average length of ser- 
vice of the American teacher is short in any case. For the same 
reason, while the system of appointing teachers on probation for 
a period of from two to five years is suggestive, it would be dif- 
ficult to enforce throughout this country. The system of recog- 
nizing certificates of different grades is not the same as a period 
of probation, because in the first place it militates against homo- 
geneity, and secondly it gives the very inefficient teacher and the 
teacher who has other plans for the future an opportunity of 
obtaining an appointment at any rate for a few years. Nor is 
the renewal of certificates by means of examinations the best way 
of testing those qualities in a teacher which cannot be put down 
on paper. Under appropriate conditions, which it must be ad- 
mitted do not as yet prevail in America, the most commendable 
plan for the practical preparation of the teacher would be the 
laboratory method of practice-teaching as recommended by 
Dewey ^ and a probationary period to select those who prove their 
ability to develop efficiency in the class-room. 

The organization of the practice-schools in Prussia affords a 
highly valuable suggestion for American normal schools. An 
opportunity is afforded in most of the Prussian normal schools 
for the students to become acquainted with the type of school in 
which the majority will probably take up their work. While, 
however, this opportunity is confined to the acquisition of class- 
room technique in the ungraded school, it is possible to conceive 
how this might easily be utilized to bring out the more special 
problems of the rural school. In this country the demands of this 
type of schools are becoming more and more insistent and the 
sporadic attempts which are being made at present must even- 
tually be more widely extended until a larger number of normal 
schools will be in a position to prepare their students to meet the 
problems of the rural community. In Prussia the drift of teach- 
ers to the city systems is checked by administrative regulations. 



'Theory and Practice in the Training of Teachers. 



126 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

Such a course is inconceivable in this country and must be re- 
placed by instilling in the future teachers a genuine appreciation 
of rural conditions as well as by economic attractions. 

It bears excellent testimony to the progress which this country 
has made in the science of education that in the field of elementary 
education Germany, her early teacher, has little to offer that is 
suggestive. The system which Mann, Stowe, Bache and others 
praised in the forties of the last century with so much enthusiasm, 
is still essentially the system of Germany to-day. The lessons 
which the early reformers wished to emphasize have been well 
learned, and even if they have been learned only in patches, the 
elements for further progress are within this country. And after 
all the problems which have to be faced are American, the con- 
ditions whi(ih education must meet are American, and the ideals 
which have to be realized are American. The solution, therefore, 
must be discovered on American soil. Other countries may offer 
suggestions on a point here or a point there. How far the Ger- 
man system of training teachers may prove of value to the ques- 
tion in this country it has been the purpose of this chapter to 
show. 

While eminently successful in attaining their object, the Ger- 
man normal schools illustrate the dangers of applying bureau- 
cratic methods in education. Superior authority and dictatorial 
methods are not calculated to develop initiative and personality, 
qualities which above all are desirable in a teacher. 



APPENDIX 

TABLE I 

Time-Table in the Preparatory Courses 



Prussia 



Saxony 



Bavaria 



Religion 

German 

Foreign Languages. 

History 

Mathematics 

Natural Science . . . 

Geography 

Writing 

Drawing 

Gymnastics 

Music 



Optional 

Piano 

Stenography 



4 
3(4) 
7(6) 



4 
3(4) 
7(6) 



4 
3(4) 
5(4) 

2 

5 
3 
2 
I 
2 
3 
3 



TABLE II 
Daily Routine in a Prussian Normal School 



Week Days 
5 Rise 

5.30-6.15 
6 .20 
6.50 
7-9 • 5° 



Study 
Breakfast 
Prayers 
Class work 



9 . 50-10 .05 Second breakfast 



10. 10—12 
12 .10 
12-3 

3-6 

3.50-4.10 
7 . 10 

•15-915 
9-3° 



Class work 

Lunch 

Free periods 

Class work or study 

Coffee 

Supper 

Study 

Prayers and bed 



Sunday 


6 


Rise 


7 


Breakfast 


7-30 


Prayers 


8-9 


Free occupations 


9-915 


Second breakfast 


9-3° 


Church 


12 . 10 


Lunch 


12 .30-6 


Free 


3.50-4.10 


Coffee 


6-7 


Free occupations 


7 . 10 


Supper 



8. 15-9. 15 Study 



9-30 



Prayers and bed 



On Wednesday and Saturday afternoons there are half-holidays, 

127 



128 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 

TABLE III 
Official Time-Tables in Normal Schools 



Year of course 

Pedagogy 

Lesson planning and 

model lessons. . . . 
Practice teaching. . . 

Religion 

German 

Foreign languages. . 

History 

Mathematics 

Natural Science. . . . 

Geography 

Drawing 

Gymnastics 

Music 

Agriculture 

Total 



Prussia 



III II 



38 



(4a) 

4 
5 
2 
2 

5 
4 
2 
2 

3 
4 



38 



4 
4-6 

3b 



33-35 



Saxony 



III 



U 



II 



4 
4 
4 
2 
2 

4 
2 
2 

I 
2 
3d 



34 35 



2 
3^ 



30 



Bavarian 



II 



32 



29 



a Included with subject-matter. 
b One hour for method. 
c Method. 

d Singing only ; instrumental music optional. 

e In addition, instruction is given in first year in church service, and 
in law in the second, one hour each. 



Appendix 



129 





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II 



130 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 





Prepy. 
Inst. 

History 
Religion 
German 

Arithmetic 

Drawing 
French 

Drawing 
History 


German 
Nature Study 
Geography 


< 

a 


-SCHOOL 

Ungraded 

German 
German 


1 III II 
i III 1 

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SI III 1 


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German 

lb I 

3 >• Writing 

5 ) 


la Gymn'st's 
lb Drawing 
1 ; History 
4 ( Gym- 
5 1 nasties 




Normal 
School 

Religion 
German 
Mathematics 

Religion 
German 

Mathematics 
Religion 


Geography 
Pedagogy 

Harmony 

Violin 

Choral 
Singing 




Prepy. 
Inst. 

French 
German 
Religion 

Organ 

Geography 
German 

Harmony 
Gymnastics 


Singing 
History 
Arithmetic 

Nature Study 

Gymnastics 

Geometry 

Gymnastics 

Violin 
Writing 

Piano 

Writing 

Singing 

Violin 
Singing 


< 

a 


-SCHOOL 

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ReliglOB 
German 


>- 
'^ 
ft 
1 1 1 °3 II 
11^ II 

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Graded 

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lb \ 

3 y Religion 

la Religion 
lb History 

4 V German 
5' 


Arithmetic 

Model 

Lessons 

Drawing, 
Writing and 
Handwork 

Drawing, 
Writing and 
Handwork 

lb ( Geog- 

2 C raphy 

3 ) 




Normal 
School 

German 

Mathematics 

History 

Drawing 
Gymnastics 

Drawing 
Mathematics 


Chemistry 
German 

Religion 

History 

French 

Science 

French 

German 

French 

Pedagogy 
Organ 

[ Violin 




Prepy. 
Inst. 

Nature Study 

Religion 

Religion 

Geography 

German 
German 
Arithmetic 

German 
French 


History 
Nature Study 
Arithmetic 

Biblical 

History 
Geography 

Geometry 

Writing 
French 

Gymnastics 
Music 

Music 
Music 
Violin 


1" 


-SCHOOL 

Ungraded 

Religion 
German 


Arithmetic 

Nature Study 
Gymnastics 


!5 
1 

S 1 


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la Religion 

lb German 

2 j 

\ y Religion 

5) 

lb Religion 

2 

H German 

57 


Arithmetic 

Nature Study 

History or 
Gymnastics 

la Geometry 

2 (girls) 

Handwork 




Normal 
School 

I History 

II Religion 
III Pedagogy 

I Organ 

II History 

III Drawing 

I Organ 

II Gym- 
nastics 

III Drawing 


II Physics 

III Geog- 
raphy 

I Religion 

II Mathe- 
matics 
III Natural 
Science 

I Gym- 
nastics 
II 

III Singing 

I German 
II Pedagogy 
III Violin 

I Pedagogy 
II Singing 
III Gym- 

I Gym 

nasties 
II Organ ^' 


i 


7-8 
8-9 

9-10 


10-11 

11-12 

1-2 
2-3 
3-4 

4-6 
6-6 

6-7 



Appendix 



131 





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History 

Geometry 

Religion 

Geometry 
Religion 

Piano 


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Gymnastics 

Catechism 

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Geography 

Writing and 

Drawing 
Writing 


? 1 










E-SCHOOL 

Ungraded 
Religion 


German and 
Writing 

History 

Geometry 
and Reading 










PKACTIC 

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r German 


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History 
Writing 
Singing 

Gymnastics 

and Singing 




1 




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German 

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Religion 


Mathematics 
Pedagogy 

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Mathematics 

Singing 






1 


1 


t3 



Prepy. 
Inst. 

German 
Religion 
German 

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History 

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Geometry 

Organ 

French 

Harmony 
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1 




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a 2 
fa 


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1 
1 B 

1 fa 


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o3fl 


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3 

m 
£ 


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t 
us 
d 
33 


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3 

03 

3 
1 


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faO I 

tHiH 1 




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French 

German 
Natural 

Science 


Religion 
Geography 

Pedagogy 
Geography 

Organ 


1 




d 
.do 

faW 


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Chemistry 

Violin 

Geography 

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German 


a 

a 
d bo 

5 


l- 

I 


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French 
German 
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French 

German 


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Geography 

Arithmetic 

German 
Arithmetic 

Biblical 

History 
Geometry 

Gymnastics 


1 
1 




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t % 




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0. 

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a 

a 




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German 

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Geography 


Mathematics 
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Religion 

Natural 

Science 

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1 


XD 
C« 

d 

a 
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c 


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t» 00 


9-10 
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^ 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

History of the Training of Teachers in Germany 

Barnard, H. German Teachers and Educators. 

Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism. 
DiNTER. Autobiographie. 

Fischer, K. Geschichte des deutschen Volksschullehrerstandes (Ber- 
lin, 1898). 
Francke, a. W. Erinnerung an Studirende der Theologie, etc.; and 

other writings contained in Richter's edition. 
Herber, Pauline. Das Lehrerinnenwesen in Deutschland (M-iinchen, 

1906). 
Kehr, C. Die Geschichte des Schullehrerseminars zu Halberstadt, 

Pddagogische Blatter, 1878. 
Kreitz, W. Diesterweg und die Lehrerbildung, eine Geschichte der 

deutschen Lehrerbildung (Wittenberg, 1890). 
Leuschke, a. Zur Geschichte der Lehrerbildungsfrage im Konigreich 

Sachsen (Dresden, 1904). 
Mertz, G. Das Schulwesen der deutschen Reformation (Heidelberg., 

1902). 
RissMANN, R. Geschichte des deutschen Lehrervereins (Leipzig, 1908), 
WiLKE, E. Diesterweg und die Lehrerbildung (Berlin, 1890). 
ScHMiD, K. A. Encyklopadie des gesamten Erziehungs- und Unter- 

richtswesen (Leipzig, 1887), Vol. X. 

Administration 

Baltzer, J. Die wichtigsten preussischen Schulordnungen der letzten 

drei Jahrhunderte. 
Bremen, E. von. Die preussische Volksschule. Gesetze und Verord- 
nungen (Berlin, 1905). 

Contains everything dealing with the administration of elementary 
and normal schools of Prussia. 
Centralblatt fur die gesamte Unterrichtsverwaliung (Berlin, monthly). 

The official organ of the Ministry in Prussia. 
Commissioner of Education. Reports, U. S. Bureau of Education 

(Washington). 
Englmann, J. A. und Stingl, E. Handbuch des bayerischen Volks- 

schulrechts (Munich, 1905). 
Handbuch f^ir Lehrer und Lehrerinnen (Leipzig, 1903). 

A handbook for teachers dealing Mnth administration of Prus- 
sian schools, the preparation of the teacher and the examinations, 
the legal status of teachers, teachers' associations and educational 
magazines. 
Heinze, W. Im Amt (Goslar, 1906). 
Similar to the previous book. 

132 



Bibliography 133 

Herber, Pauline. Das Lehrerinnenwesen in Deutschland (Munich, 
1906). 

Deals with the preparation and status of the women teachers. 
Glattfelter, a. Das Lehrerbesoldungsgesetz vom 26 Mai, 1909 (Diis- 
seldorf, 1909). 

Contains the laws on salary, pension, and provision for widows. 
Kretzschmar, F. Handbuch des preussischen Schulrechts (Leipzig, 
1899). 
A clear account of the educational administration of Prussia. 
Kretzschmar, J. F. Das hohere Schulwesen im Konigreich Sachsen, 

Gesetz vom 22 Aug., 1876 (Leipzig, 1903). 
Lexis, W. Das Unterrichtswesen im deutschen Reich (Berlin, 1904). 

An excellent treatment of all phases of German education. 
Pddagogisches Jahrbuch (Berlin, annually). 

Gives a resume of the administrative changes, the most important 
questions affecting elementary education and teachers, the transac- 
tions of teachers' associations, and reviews of books on education. 
Pddagogische Jahresschau (Berlin, annually). 
Similar to the previous book. 

P"tzold, W. Geschichte des Volksschulwesens im Konigreich Sachsen 
(Leipzig, 1908). 

Pluschke, p. Die stadtischen Schuldeputationen und ihr Geschafts- 
kreis (Berlin, 1908). 

A very full account of the administration of education from 
the point of view of local boards of administration. 
Rein, W. Encyclopedia. 
Sdchsische Landtagsakten (Dresden, annually). 

The official statistical publication. 
ScHOPPA, C. Die Bestimmungen des koniglichen preussischen Ministers, 
etc. (Leipzig, annually). 

Contains the regulations for elementary, middle and normal 
schools, teachers' examinations, with the annual changes. 
Statistisches Jahrbuch fur den preussischen Staat (Berlin, annually). 

Seydewitz, p. von. Das konigliche sachsische Volksschulgesetz (Leipzig, 
1906). 

Curriculum 

Bremen, E. von. See under administration. 
Englmann, J. A. und Stingl, E. See under administration. 
Gerstenhauer, O. Zur Wtirdigung der Lehrplane von 1901 (Breslau, 
1906). 

A critical estimate of the course of study for normal schools. 
Grullich, a. Unsere Seminar- Arbeit, Ein Beitrag zur Organisation des 
sachsischen Seminarwesens (Meissen, 1904). 

An account of the curriculum in Saxon normal schools. 
Kretzschmar, J. F. See under administration. 
Lexis, W. Vol. III. See under administration. 
Schoppa, C. See under administration. 

Schmidt, A. M. tjber den gegenwartigen Stand der Lehrerbildung 
und Lehrerinnenbildung in Th-(iringen. In Mitteilungen des Vereins 
der Freunde Herbartischer Padagogik in Thtiringen (Langensalza, 

1907)- 
A comparison with the normal schools of Prussia. 



134 Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany 
Theory of Training Teachers 

Gerstenhauer, O. See under curriculum. 
Grullich, a. See under curriculum. 
P'ddagogische Blatter. 

A magazine devoted entirely to this question. 
Schmidt, A. M. See under curriculum. 
Seyfert, R. Vorschldge zur Reform der Lehrerbildung (Leipzig, 1905). 

A valuable contribution. 

Teachers' Associations 

Handbuch fur Lehrer, etc. See under administration. 
Deutsche Lehrerverein, Berichte (Leipzig, annually). 

(The provincial associations publish annual reports.) 

Deutsche Schule. 

The monthly organ of the Deutsche Lehrerverein. 

Preussische Lehrerzeitung. Weekly. 
Leipziger Lehrerzeitung. 

RisSMANN, R. Geschichte des deutschen Lehrervereins (Leipzig, 1908). 
A history of teachers' associations, with a good account of the 
present position and activities of the Deutsche Lehrerverein. 

Educational Museums 

Andrews, B. R. Museums of Education, their History and their Use, 
Teachers College Record, September, 1908. 

HuBNER, M. Die deutschen Schulmuseen (Breslau, 1904). 
Das stadtische Schulmuseum zu Breslau (Breslau, 1902). 

Lexis, W. See under administration. 

Monroe, W. S. Educational Museums and Libraries of Europe, Educa- 
tional Review, April, 1896. 

For a list of educational magazines and current literature see Heinze, 
W., Im Amt, p. 266 ff. 



INDEX 



Academic institute for church music, 

49 

Administration, school, 72 

Aims, in Prussia n. s., 64; in German 
elementary schools, 121 

America, normal schools in, 121 

Andreae, Dr., 106, 109 

Appointing authorities; Prussia, 80, 
88; Saxony, 80; Bavaria, 81 

Appointments : extra-state candi- 
dates, 42, 43; examinations for, 
first, 80, 81 ; permanent, 83-86, 
117; nature of first, 81; methods 
of, 88, 90; untrained candidates, 
42; women, 115 

Apprentice teachers, 3 

Art, schools of, 49, 50 

Associations, teachers', denomina- 
tional, 102, 3 ; early, loi, 2 ; general 
German, 102; local, 104; Leipzig, 
104; German, 102; Saxon, 105; 
women, 118, 119 

Athletics, 68 

Basedow and training of teachers, 9 

Bavaria, administration, local, 27; 
town and state, 28; appointing 
authorities, 81 ; chairs of education 
in universities, 109 ; normal schools, 
56; preparatory training, 38, 39; 
regulations for training of teach- 
ers, 17 

Beckedorff, L., 11 

Berlin, first normal school, 8; special 
courses for n. s. teachers, 48, 49; 
for music teachers, 49; for draw- 
ing, 49, 50; for gymnastics, 50; 
stadtisches schulmuseum, 109 

Blackboard, use of, 35 



Breslau, stadtisches Schulmuseum, 

105 
Buildings, n. s., 45, 6 

Callnterg, n. s. for women, 14 

Centralblatt, 20 

Centralization, defects of, 121 

Chancellor, i 

Child study, 72 

Church control, i, 2, 4, 90 

Classes, size of, in elementary schools, 
82 

Clergy and training of teachers, 5 ; 
on school committees in Prussia, 
22, 23; in Saxony, 27; in Bavaria, 
27; and school inspection, 24; 
training of, in education, 25 

Comenius and training of teachers, 5 

Curriculum in n. s., 60 ff; aim of, 64; 
in preparatory institutions, 32!? 

Dame schools, 2, 17 
Diesterweg, 12; influence of, 15; re- 
tirement, 13 ; views on preparatory 
training, 12 
Dinter, 10 

Discipline over teachers, 96 
Drawing, 35, 68; instructors of, 50 
Droyssig, training of women at, 14, 



English, system of training teachers 

in, 122 
Equipment of n. s. in Prussia, 45, 46 
Ernest, Duke, of Gotha, 5 
Examinations, entrance, 58-60 ; final, 

78, 79; middle school teachers, 97; 

for permanent appointment, 83- 

86; principals, 98 

^3S 



136 



Index 



Expenditures of teachers, 96 
Extension courses, 104, 107 

Faculties, in Prussia, preparatory 
institutions, 30; in n. s., 46; quali- 
fications, 46; training, 47; special- 
list teachers, 49; in Saxony, 53; 
in Bavaria, 56; salaries, 50, 54, 56 

Falk, reforms, A., 15 

Fines on teachers, 96 

Francke, A. F., 7 

Frankfort, teachers' resolutions at, 

12, lOI 

Frederick the Great, and education, 
8 

Frederick II, of Gotha, 6 

Frederick William I, of Branden- 
burg, 7 

French, 33, 66 

Further training of teachers, gjfi 

Generallandschulreglement, 8 
Geography, instruction in, 34, 57 
German, instruction in, preparatory 

institutions 32; n. s., 65 
German Teachers' Association, 102 
Gotha, training of teachers in, 5, 6; 

students in n. s., 51 
Guilds, teachers', 2,3,4 
Gymnastics, 35, 68, 69; instructors 

of, 5° 

Halberstadt, n, s. at, 9 

Halle, Francke's institution at, 9 

Hannover, n. s. at, 9; stadtisches 

Schulmuseum, 106 
Harnisch, W., 11 
Hecker, his training institution at 

Berlin, 7 
Hedge-schools, 2 
History, instruction in, 34, 66 
History of education, instruction in, 

72 
Hygiene, school, 73 

Inspection of schools, 13, 98, 99 



Inspectors, district school, 22, 23; 

duties of, 26, 99; local school, 24; 

training of, 25; in Saxony, 27, 99; 

Bavaria, 27 
Intemat, 45 

Latin schools, 2 

Laymen in education in Prussia, 21- 

23 

Leipzig, association, 104; institution 
for experimental pedagogy and 
psychology, 104; university and 
elementary teachers, 107; degree 
results, 108 

Libraries, 105 

Licenses, teachers', 2 

Luther, 4 

Magdeburg, stadtisches schulmu- 
seum, 106 

Mathematics, 34, 67 

Method, special, 73 

Methods of instruction in n. s., 62, 
63. 69 

Military service, 87 

Minister of Education, duties of, 18 

Ministry for education in Prussia, 
II, 19,20 

Mittelschule, teachers in, 97 

Museums, school, 105, 6 

Music, instruction in, 35, 68; instruc- 
tors of, 49 

Normal schools, development of 
idea of, 7 ; cost of living in, 43 ; 
description of, 43, 44; buildings, 
45; entrance examinations, 58; 
leaving examination, 78, 79; in 
Saxony, 55; in Bavaria, 56 

Normal school students, origin of, 51 

Orphans of teachers, provision for, 94 

Pensions, teachers', 93, 94, 95 
Pestalozzi, influence of, 10, 34 
Philanthropinum, of Basedow, 8 
Pietistic movement and education, 6 
Plamann, J., 10 
Practice schools, 74, 75 
Practice teaching, 75, 76, 77 



Index 



137 



Preparatory institutions, 2 9ff; en- 
trance examinations, 31; curricu- 
lum, 32ff; recognized by state, 15 

Preparatory training for n. s., prob- 
lem of, 39, 41 ; views of Harnisch 
and Diesterweg, 12 

Principals, examinations for, 98 

Provinces, in Prussia, administra- 
tion of, 20 

Provincial school boards, 20, 43 

Prussia, allgemeine Landrecht, 10; 
appointing authorities, 80; minis- 
try for education, 11; practice 
schools, 74; preparatory institu- 
tions, 29!?; students in n. s., 51; 
regulations for training of teach- 
ers, 1854, 13; 1872, 15; 1901, 16, 
32, 60 

Psychology, instruction in, 71 

Qualifications of n. s. faculties, 47, 
53 ; for permanent appointment in 
elementary schools, 83 

Ratke, 5 

Realschule, Hecker's, at Berlin, 8 

Reformation and education, 4 

Regierungen, 21 

Regulations for training of teachers, 

13. IS. 60 
Rein, W., 40, 106 
Rent, compensation for, 50, 92 
Revolution of 1848 and teachers, 12 
Rural schools, 81 

Salaries, n. s. faculties, 50, 54, 56; 
preparatory institutions, 30 ; teach- 
ers in elementary schools, 91-93; 
value of, 96 

Saxony, comparison with Prussia, 
37; administration, 27; law of 1876, 
37; normal school commission 
1794, 10; normal school faculties, 
53; curriculum, 69; ordinance for 
normal school 1873, ^7! profes- 
sional influence in, 26; regulations 
1820, ir; 1857, 14; university 
privileges in, 14 



Schienmeyer, 7 
Scholasticus, i, 2 
Schuldeputation, 21, 22 
Schulkommission, 23 
Schulmuseum, 105, 6 
Schulvorstand, 21, 23 
Science, instruction in, 34, 67 
Seminarium praeceptorum at Halle, 

7 
Seminaria Scholastica in Gotha, 6 
Service, periods of, men and women, 

117 
Seyfert, R., proposals for reform, 

60, 61 
Sextons as teachers, 4 
Steinmetz, Abbot, 7 

Thirty Years' War and education, 

4, 5 
Town school committees, 21, 22 
Travels of teachers, no 
Trotzendorf, 5 

University training, demands of 
teachers, 14, 106; of Jena, 109; 
of Leipzig, 107; special courses, 107 

Vernacular schools, i 

Visitation of schools, 49 

Von Raumer and reaction, 14 

Von Rochow and Halberstadt n. s., 9 

Wahlf ahigkeitsprMung in Saxony, 43 

Weissenfels n. s., 11 

Widows of teachers, provision for, 94 

Winkelschulen, 2 

Writing, instruction in, 35 

Writing schools and their teachers, 2 

Women teachers, training of, 14, 17, 
III ff; n. s. for, 14, 112; curricu- 
lum in, 113; practice teaching, 113; 
associations, 108; principal's ex- 
amination, 115; salaries, 117; 
length of service, 118 



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